Activation of the ERK and AKT signalling pathway predicts poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma and ERK activation in cancer tissue is associated with hepatitis C virus infection

Erk Inhibition as a Promising Therapeutic Strategy for High IL-8-Secreting and Low SPTAN1-Expressing Colorectal Cancer

Tumor recurrence and drug resistance are responsible for poor prognosis in colorectal cancer (CRC). DNA mismatch repair (MMR) deficiency or elevated interleukin-8 (IL-8) levels are characteristics of CRCs, which have been independently correlated with treatment resistance to common therapies. We recently demonstrated significantly impaired therapeutical response and increased IL-8 release of CRC cell lines with reduced expression of MMR protein MLH1 as well as cytoskeletal non-erythrocytic spectrin alpha II (SPTAN1). In the present study, decreased intratumoral MLH1 and SPTAN1 expression in CRCs could be significantly correlated with enhanced serum IL-8. Furthermore, using stably reduced SPTAN1-expressing SW480, SW620 or HT-29 cell lines, the RAS-mediated RAF/MEK/ERK pathway was analyzed. Here, a close connection between low SPTAN1 expression, increased IL-8 secretion, enhanced extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation and a mesenchymal phenotype were detected. The inhibition of ERK by U0126 led to a significant reduction in IL-8 secretion, and the combination therapy of U0126 with FOLFOX optimizes the response of corresponding cancer cell lines. Therefore, we hypothesize that the combination therapy of FOLFOX and U0126 may have great potential to improve drug efficacy on this subgroup of CRCs, showing decreased MLH1 and SPTAN1 accompanied with high serum IL-8 in affected patients.

Arsenic and Tau Phosphorylation: a Mechanistic Review

Arsenic poisoning can affect the peripheral nervous system and cause peripheral neuropathy. Despite different studies on the mechanism of intoxication, the complete process is not explained yet, which can prevent further intoxication and produce effective treatment. In the following paper, we would like to consider the idea that arsenic might cause some diseases via inflammation induction, and tauopathy in neurons. Tau protein, one of the microtubule-associated proteins expressed in neurons, contributes to neuronal microtubules structure. Arsenic may be involved in cellular cascades involved in modulating tau function or hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, which ultimately leads to nerve destruction. For proof of this assumption, some investigations have been planned to measure the association between arsenic and quantities of phosphorylation of tau protein. Additionally, some researchers have investigated the association between microtubule trafficking in neurons and the levels of tau protein phosphorylation. It should be noticed that changing tau phosphorylation in arsenic toxicity may add a new feature to understanding the mechanism of poisonousness and aid in discovering novel therapeutic candidates such as tau phosphorylation inhibitors for drug development.

Unraveling the Janus-Faced Role of Autophagy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Implications for Therapeutic Interventions

This review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying autophagy and mitophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Autophagy is an essential cellular process in maintaining cell homeostasis. Still, its dysregulation is associated with the development of liver diseases, including HCC, which is one of leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. We focus on elucidating the dual role of autophagy in HCC, both in tumor initiation and progression, and highlighting the complex nature involved in the disease. In addition, we present a detailed analysis of a small subset of autophagy- and mitophagy-related molecules, revealing their specific functions during tumorigenesis and the progression of HCC cells. By understanding these mechanisms, we aim to provide valuable insights into potential therapeutic strategies to manipulate autophagy effectively. The goal is to improve the therapeutic response of liver cancer cells and overcome drug resistance, providing new avenues for improved treatment options for HCC patients. Overall, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians interested in the complex role of autophagy in HCC and its potential as a target for innovative therapies aimed to combat this devastating disease.

p-mTOR, p-ERK and PTEN Expression in Tumor Biopsies and Organoids as Predictive Biomarkers for Patients with HPV Negative Head and Neck Cancer

BACKGROUND

Survival rates of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) have only marginally improved in the last decades. Hence there is a need for predictive biomarkers for long-time survival that can help to guide treatment decisions and might lead to the development of new therapies. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway is the most frequently altered pathway in HNSCC, genes are often mutated, amplificated and overexpressed causing aberrant signaling affecting cell growth and differentiation. Numerous genetic alterations of upstream and downstream factors have currently been clarified. However, their predictive value has yet to be established. Therefore we assess the predictive value of p-mTOR, p-ERK and PTEN expression.

METHODS

Tissue microarrays (TMA's) of HPV-negative patients with oropharyngeal (n = 48), hypopharyngeal (n = 16) or laryngeal (n = 13) SCC, treated with primary chemoradiation (cisplatin/carboplatin/cetuximab and radiotherapy), were histologically stained for p-mTOR, PTEN and p-ERK. Expression was correlated to overall survival (OS), disease free survival (DFS) and locoregional control (LRC). Also p-mTOR was histologically stained in a separate cohort of HNSCC organoids (n = 8) and correlated to mTOR-inhibitor everolimus response.

RESULTS

High p-mTOR expression correlated significantly with worse OS in multivariate analysis in the whole patient cohort [Hazar Ratio (HR) 1.06, 95%CI 1.01-1.11, p = 0.03] and in the cisplatin/carboplatin group with both worse OS (HR 1.09, 95%CI 1.02-1.16, p = 0.02) and DFS (HR 1.06, 95%CI 1.00-1.12, p = 0,04). p-ERK expression correlated significantly with DFS in univariate analysis in the whole patient cohort (HR 1.03, 95%CI 1.00-1.05, p = 0.04) and cisplatin/carboplatin group (HR 1.03, 95%CI 1.00-1.07, p = 0.04). PTEN-expression did not correlate with OS/DFS/LRC. Better organoid response to everolimus correlated significantly to higher p-mTOR expression (Rs = - 0.731, p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

High p-mTOR expression predicts and high p-ERK expression tends to predict worse treatment outcome in HPV negative HNSCC patients treated with chemoradiation, providing additional evidence that these markers are candidate prognostic biomarkers for survival in this patient population. Also this study shows that the use of HNSCC organoids for biomarker research has potential. The role of PTEN expression as prognostic biomarker remains unclear, as consistent evidence on its prognostic and predictive value is lacking.

Genomic landscape of Chinese patients with hepatocellular carcinoma using next-generation sequencing and its association with the prognosis

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

The occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is not entirely clear at present. This study comprehensively described the landscape of genetic aberrations in Chinese HCC patients using next-generation sequencing (NGS) and investigated the association of genetic aberrations with clinicopathological characteristics and prognosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The clinicopathological data of 78 HCC patients undergoing surgery were retrospectively analyzed. The genomic DNA extracted from tumor samples was detected using a NGS-based gene panel.

RESULTS

Mutations in TP53 (55%), TERT (37%), MUC16 (29%) and CTNNB1 (27%) were most common in HCC. The co-occurrences between frequently mutated genes occurring ≥10% were relatively common in HCC. Forty-eight (61.5%) cases harbored DNA damage repair gene mutations, mainly including PRKDC (11.5%), SLX4 (9.0%), ATM (7.7%), MSH6 (7.7%), and PTEN (6.4%), and 39 (50.0%) patients had at least one actionable mutation. FH amplification (odds ratio: 3.752, 95% confidence interval: 1.170-12.028, p=0.026) and RB1 mutations (odds ratio: 13.185, 95% confidence interval: 1.214-143.198, p=0.034) were identified as the independent risk factors for early postoperative recurrence in HCC.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides a novel insight into the genomic profiling of Chinese HCC patients. FH amplification and RB1 mutations may be associated with an increased risk of early postoperative recurrence in HCC.

ERK inhibitor: A candidate enhancing therapeutic effects of conventional chemo-radiotherapy in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

For patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), standard therapeutic methods (cisplatin and radiotherapy) have been found to be ineffective and severely toxic. Targeted therapy emerges as a promising solution for this dilemma. It has been reported that targeted therapies are applied alone or in combination with standard conventional therapies for the treatment of a variety of cancers. To the best of our knowledge, in patients with ESCC, the combinational methods containing standard therapy and ERK-targeted therapy have yet to be explored. To analyze the prognostic role of p-ERK in ESCC patients, the Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox regression model were used. To assess the effects of ERK-targeted therapy (GDC0994) on ESCC cells, in vitro studies including CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay, and scratch wound healing assay were conducted. In addition, the changes in cell cycle distribution and apoptosis were analyzed by flow cytometry. Besides, to assess the efficacy of different therapies in vivo, the xenograft tumor models were established by subcutaneously inoculating tumor cells into the flank/leg of mice. In patients with ESCC, a strong correlation between the high expression level of p-ERK and the poor prognosis (p < 0.01, Log-Rank test) has been identified. By analyzing the results from CCK-8 and scratch wound healing assays, we demonstrated that the ERK inhibitor repressed the viability and migration of ESCC cells. In addition, following the treatment of GDC0994, the volumes of xenograft tumors significantly decreased (p < 0.001, one-way ANOVA). Furthermore, blocking the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK/ERK) pathway enhanced the therapeutic efficacy of both cisplatin and radiotherapy (p < 0.05). These findings imply the role of p-ERK in the prognosis of ESCC patients and the therapeutic value of ERK inhibitors in ESCC.

Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Study on the Multi-Target Mechanisms of Aloe vera for Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis Treatment

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a leading cause of chronic liver disease with limited treatment options. The widely distributed plant Aloe vera has shown protective effects against NASH in animals, yet the precise mechanism remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the potential mechanisms underlying the anti-NASH effects of Aloe vera using a network pharmacology and molecular docking approach. By searching online databases and analyzing the Gene Expression Omnibus dataset, we obtained 260 Aloe vera-NASH common targets. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analyses showed that the common targets were strongly associated with the key pathological processes implicated in NASH, including lipid and glucose metabolism, inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and liver fibrosis. Four core proteins, AKT serine/threonine kinase 1 (AKT1), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), transcription factor c-Jun, and tumor suppressor protein p53, were identified from compound-target-pathway and protein-protein interaction networks. Molecular docking analysis verified that the active ingredients of Aloe vera were able to interact with the core proteins, especially AKT1 and TNFα. The results demonstrate the multi-compound, multi-target, and multi-pathway mechanisms of Aloe vera against NASH. Our study has shown the scientific basis for further experiments in terms of the mechanism to develop Aloe vera-based natural products as complementary treatments for NASH. Furthermore, it identifies novel drug candidates based on the structures of Aloe vera's active compounds.

Targeted Therapies for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Treatment: A New Era Ahead-A Systematic Review

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains one of the most common malignancies and the third cause of cancer-related death worldwide, with surgery being the best prognostic tool. Among the well-known causative factors of HCC are chronic liver virus infections, chronic virus hepatitis B (HBV) and chronic hepatitis virus C (HCV), aflatoxins, tobacco consumption, and non-alcoholic liver disease (NAFLD). There is a need for the development of efficient molecular markers and alternative therapeutic targets of great significance. In this review, we describe the general characteristics of HCC and present a variety of targeted therapies that resulted in progress in HCC therapy.

Involvement of adaptor protein, phosphotyrosine interacting with PH domain and leucine zipper 1 in diallyl trisulfide-induced cytotoxicity in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

It has been demonstrated that APPL1 (adaptor protein, phosphotyrosine interacting with PH domain and leucine zipper 1) is involved in the regulation of several growth-related signaling pathways and thus closely associated with the development and progression of some cancers. Diallyl trisulfide (DAT), a garlic-derived bioactive compound, exerts selective cytotoxicity to various human cancer cells through interfering with pro-survival signaling pathways. However, whether and how DAT affects survival of human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells remain unclear. Herein, we tested the hypothesis of the involvement of APPL1 in DAT-induced cytotoxicity in HCC HepG2 cells. We found that Lys 63 (K63)-linked polyubiquitination of APPL1 was significantly decreased whereas phosphorylation of APPL1 at serine residues remained unchanged in DAT-treated HepG2 cells. Compared with wild-type APPL1, overexpression of APPL1 K63R mutant dramatically increased cell apoptosis and mitigated cell survival, along with a reduction of phosphorylation of STAT3, Akt, and Erk1/2. In addition, DAT administration markedly reduced protein levels of intracellular TNF receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6). Genetic inhibition of TRAF6 decreased K63-linked polyubiquitination of APPL1. Moreover, the cytotoxicity impacts of DAT on HepG2 cells were greatly attenuated by overexpression of wild-type APPL1. Taken together, these results suggest that APPL1 polyubiquitination probably mediates the inhibitory effects of DAT on survival of HepG2 cells by modulating STAT3, Akt, and Erk1/2 pathways.

Boric acid exert anti-cancer effect in poorly differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma cells via inhibition of AKT signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

The possible anti-cancer properties of boron, a trace element for humans, have been demonstrated in various experimental and epidemiological studies, although the effects of boron on liver cancer are unclear. In the present study we evaluate the effects of boric acid on the cell lines of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) of the liver, as the leading form of liver cancer, for which a poorly-differentiated HCC cell line (Mahlavu cell line) was used.

METHODS

The anti-cancer effect of boric acid was investigated with a cell viability assay, apoptosis analysis, cell migration analysis, cell morphology analysis, colony formation assay and 3D cell culture techniques. Also, the effect of boric acid on the AKT signaling pathway was determined through a western blot analysis.

RESULTS

Boric acid was found to reduce cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner, and decreased survival, colony formation ability, migration capability and HCC cell tumor spheroid growth in HCC cell lines, while also inducing apoptosis, autophagy and morphological alteration. Furthermore, boric acid inhibited AKT phosphorylation, and anticancer biological responses in HCC cells were observed only in cells in which AKT phosphorylation was suppressed by boric acid.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that boric acid might be a promising therapeutic candidate in hepatocellular carcinoma via the inhibition of AKT signaling pathway.

LncRNA 1700020I14Rik promotes AKR1B10 expression and activates Erk pathway to induce hepatocyte damage in alcoholic hepatitis

Alcoholic hepatitis (AH), a kind of alcoholic liver disease, shows poor prognosis. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) exert critical role in liver diseases. Here, we intended to investigate the possible molecular mechanism that 1700020I14Rik-based regulation of microRNA (miR)-137/Aldo-keto reductase family 1 member B10 (AKR1B10) affecting the inflammatory response and hepatocyte damage in AH. AH-related genes and the down-stream regulatory pathway were screnned by bioinformatics. Mouse normal hepatocyte cell line AML12 was selected to construct an ethanol-induced hepatocyte injury model for in vitro mechanistic validation, while we also established an AH mouse model using the ethanol with gradually increased concentration of 2–4% (v/v) for in vivo study. Specific role of 1700020I14Rik/miR-137/AKR1B10 in AML12 cell viability, proliferation and apoptotic capacity as well as inflammation and liver damage in mice were analyzed following ectopic and depletion approaches. We found elevated AKR1B10 and 1700020I14Rik but reduced miR-137 in AH. 1700020I14Rik was able to elevated miR-137-mediated AKR1B10. In vitro cell experiments and in vivo animal experiments validated that 1700020I14Rik reduced ethanol-induced hepatocyte damage and inflammation in AH mice through regulation of miR-137–mediated AKR1B10/Erk axis. The current study underlied that 1700020I14Rik could activate AKR1B10/Erk signaling through inhibition of miR-137, thereby promoting the hepatocyte damage in AH mice.

Disruption of Growth Hormone Receptor Signaling Abrogates Hepatocellular Carcinoma Development

Introduction

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancers. It is an aggressive neoplasm with dismal outcome because most of the patients present with an advanced-stage disease, which precludes curative surgical options. Therefore, these patients require systemic therapies that typically induce small improvements in overall survival. Hence, it is crucial to identify new and promising therapeutic targets for HCC to improve the current outcome. The liver is a key organ in the signaling cascade triggered by the growth hormone receptor (GHR). Previous studies have shown that GHR signaling stimulates the proliferation and regeneration of liver cells and tissues; however, a definitive role of GHR signaling in HCC pathogenesis has not been identified.

Methods

In this study, we used a direct and specific approach to analyze the role of GHR in HCC development. This approach encompasses mice with global (Ghr-/- ) or liver-specific (LiGhr-/- ) disruption of GHR expression, and the injection of diethylnitrosamine (DEN) to develop HCC in these mice.

Results

Our data show that DEN induced HCC in a substantial majority of the Ghr+/+ (93.5%) and Ghr +/- (87.1%) mice but not in the Ghr-/- (5.6%) mice (P < 0.0001). Although 57.7% of LiGhr-/- mice developed HCC after injection of DEN, these mice had significantly fewer tumors than LiGhr+/+ (P < 0.001), which implies that the expression of GHR in the liver cells might increase tumor burden. Notably, the pathologic, histologic, and biochemical characteristics of DEN-induced HCC in mice resembled to a great extent human HCC, despite the fact that etiologically this model does not mimic this cancer in humans. Our data also show that the effects of DEN on mice livers were primarily related to its carcinogenic effects and ability to induce HCC, with minimal effects related to toxic effects.

Conclusion

Collectively, our data support an important role of GHR in HCC development, and suggest that exploiting GHR signaling may represent a promising approach to treat HCC.

Mechanisms of resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors in liver cancer stem cells and potential therapeutic approaches

The administration of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) for the treatment of advanced-stage patients is common in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, therapy resistance is often encountered, and its emergence eventually curtails long-term clinical benefits. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are essential drivers of tumor recurrence and therapy resistance; thus, the elucidation of key hallmarks of resistance mechanisms of liver CSC-driven HCC may help improve patient outcomes and reduce relapse. The present review provides a comprehensive summary of the intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of TKI resistance in liver CSCs, which mediate treatment failure, and discusses potential strategies to overcome TKI resistance from a preclinical perspective.

Anticancer effects of imidazole nucleus in hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines via the inhibition of AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways

BACKGROUND

Imidazole nucleus has been used efficiently in the development of many drug molecules due to its therapeutic effects. Many derivatives of it have been produced particularly for use in cancer treatment. However, the anti-cancer effects of imidazole nucleus in liver cancer cells are as yet unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the anti-cancer effects of imidazole nucleus in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Anti-cancer effect of imidazole nucleus was investigated using cell viability assay, apoptosis analysis, cell migration analysis, cell morphology analysis, colony formation assay and 3D cell culture techniques in HuH-7 and Mahlavu cell lines. Also, effect of imidazole on AKT and ERK1/2 pathways were determined using by western blot analysis. Imidazole decreased cell viability in both HCC cell lines in a dose and time-dependent manner and also suppressed the colony forming ability of the cells (p < 0.05). Imidazole increased the cleaved caspase 3 protein levels and thus induced apoptosis (p < 0.05). Imidazole induced morphological alterations and autophagy by increasing intracellular vacuolization. Also, imidazole decreased the viability and dimensions of HCC cell tumor spheroids produced in 3D cell cultures (p < 0.05). Moreover, it was observed that all of these effects, are defined above, appeared in parallel with suppression of AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways by imidazole nucleus.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this present study established the anti-cancer effects of imidazole nucleus in HCC cell lines and showed that it could be a potential molecule in the treatment of HCC via inhibition of AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways.

Estrogen receptor-α36 is involved in diallyl sulfide-induced inhibition of malignant growth of HepG2 and Huh7 hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a highly malignant disease that currently lacks effective treatment. Epidemiological studies have suggested the preventive role of raw garlic intake in different tumors, such as HCC. Although diallyl sulfide (DAS), the main component of garlic extracts, has been reported to inhibit the growth of HCC cells, the underlying mechanism remains elusive. This study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effect of DAS on the growth of HepG2 and Huh7 hepatocellular carcinoma cells and its underlying mechanism. HepG2 and Huh7 cells were treated with DAS and nude mice were intrahepatically injected with human HCC HepG2 cells and maintained with or without DAS administration for 28 days. MTS and clonogenic assays revealed that DAS inhibited the growth and clonogenicity of HepG2 and Huh7 hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Furthermore, DAS inhibited the growth of xenograft tumors accompanied by a decreased rate of pathological karyomitosis as observed by H&E staining. The expression levels of estrogen receptor-α36 (ER-α36) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in HepG2 and Huh7 cells and in xenograft tumors derived from HepG2 cells after DAS treatment were detected by immunohistochemistry and western blotting. We found that DAS disrupted the positive regulatory loop between ER-α36 and EGFR, and decreased the phosphorylation of AKT at Ser 473 both in vivo and in vitro. DAS also induced cell apoptosis, as evidenced by Hoechst and TUNEL staining. Western blotting revealed activation of caspase3, increased BAX and decreased Bcl-2 expression. However, the ER-α36 expression knockdown attenuated DAS-induced ERK and AKT phosphorylation in HCC cells. DAS was also able to inhibit ER-α36-mediated activation of the MAPK/ERK signaling induced by estrogen. Thus, our results indicate that ER-α36 signaling is involved in DAS-induced inhibition of HCC cell growth both in vitro and in vivo.

Chemopreventive and hepatoprotective effects of genistein via inhibition of oxidative stress and the versican/PDGF/PKC signaling pathway in experimentally induced hepatocellular carcinoma in rats by thioacetamide

Objective

Genistein is a recognized isoflavone present in soybeans with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic and antitumor activities. This study aimed to test ability of genistein in modulating versican/platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) axis in HCC.

Methods

HCC was experimentally induced in male Sprague-Dawley rats then treated with 25 or 75 mg/kg genistein. Antioxidant activities of genistein was assessed by measuring the gene expression of Nrf2 and the hepatic levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced glutathione. Expression of versican, PDGF, protein kinase C (PKC) and ERK-1 protein was assessed by Western blotting and immunostaining.

Results

HCC induced an elevation in oxidative stress, PDGF, versican, PKC and ERK protein expression levels. Genistein significantly reduced an HCC-induced increase in oxidative stress. Moreover, genistein dose-dependently reduced HCC-induced elevation of PDGF, versican, PKC and ERK protein expression levels. Moreover, genistein helped retain a normal hepatocyte structure and reduced fibrous tissue deposition, especially in high dose.

Conclusions

Genistein exerted antitumor and antioxidant effects and therefore suppress HCC development via inhibition of the PDGF/versican bidirectional axis, suppressing both ERK1 and PKC as downstream regulators. Therefore, genistein is a potential novel therapeutic candidate for improving the outcome of patients with HCC.

SPOCD1 regulated by miR-133a-3p promotes hepatocellular carcinoma invasion and metastasis

Objective

To investigate the tumorigenic role of spen paralogue and orthologue C-terminal domain-containing 1 (SPOCD1) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and identify the upstream regulatory mechanism.

Methods

We analyzed SPOCD1 and miR-133-3p expression in normal and HCC tissues from the Cancer Genome Atlas and UALCAN databases, and in normal hepatocytes and HCC cell lines by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blot. We identified the miR-133a-3p-binding site on the SPOCD1 3ʹ-untranslated region using TargetScan. Hierarchical regulation was confirmed by luciferase assay and miR-133a-3p overexpression/silencing. Cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and colony formation were assessed by MTT, scratch, transwell, and clonogenic assays, respectively.

Results

SPOCD1 was highly expressed in HCC tissues and cell lines, while miR-133a-3p expression was significantly downregulated. Kaplan–Meier analysis indicated that high SPOCD1 expression was significantly associated with poor survival. TargetScan and luciferase reporter assay revealed that SPOCD1 was the downstream target of miR-133a-3p. Overexpression of miR-133a-3p significantly inhibited the expression of SPOCD1, while miR-133a-3p knockdown significantly increased SPOCD1 expression.

Conclusion

SPOCD1, regulated by miR-133a-3p, promotes HCC cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and colony formation. This study provides the first evidence for the role of the miR-133a-3p/SPOCD1 axis in HCC tumorigenesis.

TGF-β1 in Seminal Plasma Promotes Endometrial Mesenchymal Stem Cell Growth via p42/44 and Akt Pathway in Patients With or Without Endometriosis

The cause of endometriosis, which is characterized by the existence of functional endometrial tissue outside the uterine cavity, is poorly understood. Seminal plasma (SP) is rich in multiple cytokines that may promote endometrial tissue survival. Here, we evaluated the effect of SP on growth of endometrial mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from women with endometriosis (E-MSCs) and women without endometriosis (NE-MSCs). Proliferation, cell foci formation, cell cycle progression, and growth marker expression of E- and NE-MSCs were promoted by SP. These effects may be mediated through activation of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1), Akt, and p42/44 signaling, which enhances CDK2 and CDK6 expression and accelerates cell cycle progression. Xenografts exposed to SP exhibited a three-fold increase in volume and four-fold increase in weight after 14 days. Our findings demonstrate that TGF-β1 in SP may promote endometrial tissue survival which will allow us to understand the pathogenesis and develop novel approaches for prevention and therapies of endometriosis.

Roles of Therapeutic Bioactive Compounds in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is due to poor prognosis and lack of availability of effective treatment. Novel therapeutic strategies will be the fine tuning of intracellular ROS signaling to effectively deprive cells of ROS-induced tumor-promoting events. This review discusses the generation of ROS, the major signaling their modulation in therapeutics. We explore some of the major pathways involved in HCC, which include the VEGF, MAPK/ERK, mTOR, FGF, and Ser/Thr kinase pathways. In this review, we study cornerstone on natural bioactive compounds with their effect on hepatocarcinomas. Furthermore, we focus on oxidative stress and FDA-approved signaling pathway inhibitors, along with chemotherapy and radiotherapy enhancers which with early evidence of success. While more in vivo testing is required to confirm the findings presented here, our findings will aid future nonclinical, preclinical, and clinical studies with these compounds, as well as inspire medicinal chemistry scientists to conduct appropriate research on this promising natural compound and their derivatives.

Molecular classification of hepatocellular carcinoma: prognostic importance and clinical applications

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a lethal human malignancy with a very low overall and long-term survival rate. Poor prognostic outcomes are predominantly associated with HCC due to a huge landscape of heterogeneity found in the deadliest disease. However, molecular subtyping of HCC has significantly improved the knowledge of the underlying mechanisms that contribute towards the heterogeneity and progression of the disease. In this review, we have extensively summarized the current information available about molecular classification of HCC. This review can be of great significance for providing the insight information needed for development of novel, efficient and personalized therapeutic options for the treatment of HCC patients globally.

The Natural Pigment Violacein Potentially Suppresses the Proliferation and Stemness of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells In Vitro

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a malignant type of primary liver cancer with high incidence and mortality, worldwide. A major challenge in the treatment of HCC is chemotherapeutic resistance. It is therefore necessary to develop novel anticancer drugs for suppressing the growth of HCC cells and overcoming drug resistance for improving the treatment of HCC. Violacein is a deep violet-colored indole derivative that is produced by several bacterial strains, including Chromobacterium violaceum, and it possesses numerous pharmacological properties, including antitumor activity. However, the therapeutic effects of violacein and the mechanism underlying its antitumor effect against HCC remain to be elucidated. This study is the first to demonstrate that violacein inhibits the proliferation and stemness of Huh7 and Hep3B HCC cells. The antiproliferative effect of violacein was attributed to cell cycle arrest at the sub-G1 phase and the induction of apoptotic cell death. Violacein induced nuclear condensation, dissipated mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), activated the caspase cascade, and upregulated p53 and p21. The anticancer effect of violacein on HCC cells was also associated with the downregulation of protein kinase B (AKT) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 signaling. Violacein not only suppressed the proliferation and formation of tumorspheres of Huh7 and Hep3B cancer stem-like cells but also reduced the expression of key markers of cancer stemness, including CD133, Sox2, Oct4, and Nanog, by inhibiting the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)/AKT/ERK pathways. These results suggest the therapeutic potential of violacein in effectively suppressing HCC by targeting the proliferation and stemness of HCC cells.

Liver-specific over-expression of Cripto-1 in transgenic mice promotes hepatocyte proliferation and deregulated expression of hepatocarcinogenesis-related genes and signaling pathways

In this study, we investigated the role of embryonic gene Cripto-1 (CR-1) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) using hepatocyte-specific CR-1-overexpressing transgenic mice. The expression of truncated 1.7-kb CR-1 transcript (SF-CR-1) was significantly higher than the full-length 2.0-kb CR-1 transcript (FL-CR-1) in a majority of HCC tissues and cell lines. Moreover, CR-1 mRNA and protein levels were significantly higher in HCC tissues than adjacent normal liver tissues. Hepatocyte-specific over-expression of CR-1 in transgenic mice enhanced hepatocyte proliferation after 2/3 partial hepatectomy (2/3 PHx). CR-1 over-expression significantly increased in vivo xenograft tumor growth of HCC cells in nude mice and in vitro HCC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. CR-1 over-expression in the transgenic mouse livers deregulated HCC-related signaling pathways such as AKT, Wnt/β-catenin, Stat3, MAPK/ERK, JNK, TGF-β and Notch, as well as expression of HCC-related genes such as CD5L, S100A8, S100A9, Timd4, Orm2, Orm3, PDK4, DMBT1, G0S2, Plk2, Plk3, Gsta1 and Gsta2. However, histological signs of precancerous lesions, hepatocyte dysplasia or HCC formation were not observed in the livers of 3-, 6- or 8-month-old hepatocyte-specific CR-1-overexpressing transgenic mice. These findings demonstrate that liver-specific CR-1 overexpression in transgenic mice deregulates signaling pathways and genes associated with HCC.

NEAT1 Negatively Regulates Cell Proliferation and Migration of Neuroblastoma Cells by miR-183-5p/FOXP1 Via the ERK/AKT Pathway

Neuroblastoma, a malignant tumor of the sympathetic nervous system, is an aggressive extracranial tumor in childhood. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been discovered to play a key role in the eukaryotic regulatory gene network and be involved in a wide variety of biological processes. We observed that the expression of lncRNA nuclear-enriched abundant transcript-1 (NEAT1) was significantly decreased in human neuroblastoma tissues and cell lines, compared with the normal. We observed cell proliferation, migration, and invasion with Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, colony formation assay, and Transwell assay to investigate the effects of NEAT1, miR-183-5p, or FOXP1 on neuroblastoma cells. And we also used StarBase and luciferase reporter gene assay to predict and confirm the interaction of NEAT1, miR-183-5p, and FOXP1 in neuroblastoma cells. First, overexpression of NEAT1 suppressed cell proliferation and played a key role in cell migration and invasion. In addition, NEAT1 was demonstrated to directly interact with miR-183-5p and exerted its antioncogenic role in neuroblastoma by negatively regulating miR-183-5p expression. miR-183-5p suppressed the expression of FOXP1 and regulated cell proliferation and migration by directly targeting FOXP1 mRNA 3′-untranslated region. Moreover, FOXP1 antagonized the effect of miR-183-5p on the phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated kinase/protein kinase B (ERK/AKT), while FOXP1 siRNA increased the reduced phosphorylation of ERK/AKT caused by miR-183-5p inhibitor in neuroblastoma cells. Taken together, these data showed that NEAT1 negatively regulated cell proliferation and migration of neuroblastoma by the miR-183-5p/FOXP1 axis via suppression of the ERK/AKT pathway. Our findings may provide a new target for the study of pathogenesis and treatment of neuroblastoma.

Hepatitis E viral infection regulates estrogen signaling pathways: Inhibition of the cAMPK-PKA-CREB and PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathways

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection has become a global concern with high mortality rates among pregnant women, especially those in their third trimester of pregnancy. Estrogen plays an important role in mediating the body, regulating physiological and pathological processes. Estrogen is activated by binding to estrogen receptors (ERs) and mediates rapid signaling events by pathways that involve transmembrane ERs. Our previous study had confirmed that high estrogen levels during pregnancy are associated with high HEV titers. However, the association between HEV infection and estrogen signaling pathways remains unclear. In the present study, the regulation of estrogen signaling pathways by HEV infection was evaluated. Results demonstrated that HEV infection significantly inhibits the cAMP-PKA-CREB and PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathways, but is independent of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK signaling pathway. In summary, the increasing estrogen levels and highly activated ERα during pregnancy aggravates HEV replication. The exacerbation of HEV replication, in turn, inhibits ERα expression and suppresses both cAMP-PKA-CREB and PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathways.

Treatment of hepatitis C virus infection in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: Truth or dare?

The discovery of direct acting antivirals (DAA) with high rates of sustained virusological response is the biggest epoch-making event in the history of hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment. DAAs improve liver function, prevent hepatic decompensation, and might even reverse liver fibrosis. Although initial research pointed towards a potential drawback, it is now known beyond doubt that DAA treatment reduces hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) occurrence or recurrence after curative treatments. Unfortunately, the story has reached another plot twist, as several other issues have emerged: (i) Should we treat patients with early HCC and HCV before or after surgery/ablation? (ii) Should patients with HCC on the waiting list receive DAA before or after liver transplantation? (iii) Should we use interferon-free in patients with intermediate stage HCC or in patients under systemic treatments? In this review, we aim to offer some evidence-based answers to these changing clinical dilemmas where possible, or at least some educated guesses in cases were no or little data exists.

Induction of Apoptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Lines by Novel Indolylacrylamide Derivatives: Synthesis and Biological Evaluation

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most prevalent primary liver cancer and one of the leading causes of cancer associated death worldwide. This is due to the highly resistant nature of this malignancy and the lack of effective treatment options for advanced stage HCC patients. The hyperactivity of PI3K/Akt and Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signaling pathways contribute to the cancer progression, survival, motility, and resistance mechanisms, and the interaction of these two pathways are responsible for the regulation of cancer cell growth and development. Therefore, it is vital to design and develop novel therapeutic options for HCC treatment targeting these hyperactive pathways. For this purpose, novel series of trans-indole-3-ylacrylamide derivatives originated from the lead compound, 3-(1H-indole-3-yl)-N-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)acrylamide, have been synthesized and analyzed for their bioactivity on cancer cells along with the lead compound. Based on the initial screening, the most potent compounds were selected to elucidate their effects on cellular signaling activity of HCC cell lines. Cell cycle analysis, immunofluorescence, and Western blot analysis revealed that lead compound and (E)-N-(4-tert-butylphenyl)-3-(1H-indole-3-yl)acrylamide induced cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase, enhanced chromatin condensation and PARP-cleavage, addressing induction of apoptotic cell death. Additionally, these compounds decreased the activity of ERK signaling pathway, where phosphorylated ERK1/2 and c-Jun protein levels diminished significantly. Relevant to these findings, the lead compound was able to inhibit tubulin polymerization as well. To conclude, the novel trans-indole-3-ylacrylamide derivatives inhibit one of the critical pathways associated with HCC which results in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in HCC cell lines.

Targeting Akt in Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Its Tumor Microenvironment

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide, and its incidence is rising. HCC develops almost exclusively on the background of chronic liver inflammation, which can be caused by chronic alcohol consumption, viral hepatitis, or an unhealthy diet. The key role of chronic inflammation in the process of hepatocarcinogenesis, including in the deregulation of innate and adaptive immune responses, has been demonstrated. The inhibition of Akt (also known as Protein Kinase B) directly affects cancer cells, but this therapeutic strategy also exhibits indirect anti-tumor activity mediated by the modulation of the tumor microenvironment, as demonstrated by using Akt inhibitors AZD5363, MK-2206, or ARQ 092. Moreover, the isoforms of Akt converge and diverge in their designated roles, but the currently available Akt inhibitors fail to display an isoform specificity. Thus, selective Akt inhibition needs to be better explored in the context of HCC and its possible combination with immunotherapy. This review presents a compact overview of the current knowledge concerning the role of Akt in HCC and the effect of Akt inhibition on the HCC and liver tumor microenvironment.

Diagnostic and prognostic values of AKR1C3 and AKR1D1 in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common histological type of primary liver cancer and the majority of patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage and have a poor prognosis. AKR1C3 (Aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3) and AKR1D1 (Aldo-keto reductase family 1 member D1) catalyze the conversion of aldehydes and ketones to alcohols and play crucial roles in multiple cancers. However, the functions of AKR1C3 and AKR1D1 in HCC remain unclear. In our study, data from the public databases were selected as training and validation sets, then 76 HCC patients in our center were chosen as a test set. Bioinformatics methods suggested AKR1C3 was overexpressed in HCC and AKR1D1 was down-regulated. The receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) analysis was performed and the area under curve (AUC) values of AKR1C3 and AKR1D1 were above 0.7 (0.948, 0.836, respectively). Also, the high expression of AKR1C3 and low expression of AKR1D1 predicted poor prognosis and short median survival time. Then, the knockdown of AKR1C3 and overexpression of AKR1D1 in HCC cells were achieved with lentivirus. And both decreased cell proliferation, restrained cell viability, and inhibited tumorigenesis. Moreover, the gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were conducted and the results showed that AKR1C3 and AKR1D1 might participate in the MAPK/ERK and androgen receptor (AR) signaling pathway. Furthermore, the AR and phosphorylated ERK1/2 were significantly reduced after the suppression of AKR1C3 or overexpression of AKR1D1. Collectively, AKR1C3 and AKR1D1 might serve as candidate diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for HCC and provide potential targets for HCC treatment.

GIT1 overexpression promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition and predicts poor prognosis in hepatocellular carcinoma

Globally, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common causes of cancer-associated mortalities. It has a high rate of metastasis and recurrence, which predict a poor prognosis. G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-kinase interacting protein-1 (GIT1) is a multifunctional scaffold protein that mediates the progression of various tumors. Studies have correlated GIT1 with HCC, however, these correlations have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, we aimed at evaluating the expression of GIT1 in HCC tissues and cells, and to investigate its role and potential mechanisms in HCC progression. The expression levels of GIT1 in HCC tissues and other cancers was determined by using the Oncomine and TCGA databases. Functional analysis of GIT1 in HCC was evaluated through in vitro and in vivo experiments, whereby, HCC cells were transfected with synthetically overexpressed and short hairpin RNA (shRNA) lentivirus-mediated plasmids. Kaplan–Meier and Cox regression methods were used to establish the associations between GIT1 and clinical outcomes of 158 HCC patients. GIT1 was found to be elevated in HCC tissues where it promoted the invasion, migration, and proliferation of HCC cells. Moreover, the overexpression of GIT1 prompted epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by activating extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) pathway, which was shown to be reversed by SCH772984, a specific ERK1/2 inhibitor. GIT1 was also found to be associated with malignant features of HCC, leading to a poorer prognosis. In conclusion, GIT1 promotes HCC progression by inducing EMT and may reflect the course of HCC patients.

The Role of Autophagy in Liver Cancer: Crosstalk in Signaling Pathways and Potential Therapeutic Targets

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved lysosomal-dependent pathway for degrading cytoplasmic proteins, macromolecules, and organelles. Autophagy-related genes (Atgs) are the core molecular machinery in the control of autophagy, and several major functional groups of Atgs coordinate the entire autophagic process. Autophagy plays a dual role in liver cancer development via several critical signaling pathways, including the PI3K-AKT-mTOR, AMPK-mTOR, EGF, MAPK, Wnt/β-catenin, p53, and NF-κB pathways. Here, we review the signaling pathways involved in the cross-talk between autophagy and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and analyze the status of the development of novel HCC therapy by targeting the core molecular machinery of autophagy as well as the key signaling pathways. The induction or the inhibition of autophagy by the modulation of signaling pathways can confer therapeutic benefits to patients. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the cross-link of autophagy and HCC may extend to translational studies that may ultimately lead to novel therapy and regimen formation in HCC treatment.

Expression of MAPK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR Proteins according to the Chronic Liver Disease Etiology in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Aims

Chronic liver disease (CLD) of different etiologies leads to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) by multiple mechanisms that may be translated into clinicopathological differences. We evaluated the tissue expression of the MAPK and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway proteins and their association with long-term outcome and other parameters, according to the etiology of the CLD, in HCC patients.

Methods

Clinicopathological data from 80 patients who underwent orthotopic liver transplantation for HCC treatment in a Brazilian referral center were compared according to CLD etiology. Event (tumor recurrence or death from any cause) occurrence and event-free survival (EFS) were analyzed. Pathway protein expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHQ) in both tumor and underlying cirrhosis and by RT-PCR in tumor tissue.

Results

Strong expression (SE) of KRAS was more frequent in tumors arising from viral (26.8%) than the nonviral group of liver disease (7.7%, p=0.024) and also than cirrhotic parenchyma (0%, p=0.004). SE of PI3K was more frequent in tumor than in cirrhosis (p=0.048, p < 0.01), without differences in its tumor expression among etiologic groups (p=0.111). mRNA of ERK, PI3K, and BRAF was expressed in the tumor, without differences between CLD etiologies, and there was no association with IHQ findings. Older age and microvascular invasion (MIV) were the only parameters independently associated with the event. MIV was also associated with shorter EFS.

Conclusions

Hepatitis B and C virus can lead to HCC by different mechanisms compared with nonviral hepatopathy. KRAS and PI3K may have a role in carcinogenesis. The prognostic and therapeutic implications need to be investigated.

Circular RNA Sequencing Identifies CircASAP1 as a Key Regulator in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Metastasis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

There is growing evidence that single-stranded, circular RNA (circRNA) plays a key role in the development of certain cancers, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). It is less clear, however, what role circRNA plays in HCC metastasis.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

In this study, through circRNA sequencing, we identified a circRNA: circASAP1 (a circRNA derived from exons 2 and 3 of the ASAP1 gene, hsa_circ_0085616), which is associated with pulmonary metastasis after curative resection in patients with HCC. CircASAP1 was overexpressed in HCC cell lines with high metastatic potential and in metastatic HCCs. In vitro, circASAP1 promoted cell proliferation, colony formation, migration, and invasion, and in vivo, it enhanced tumor growth and pulmonary metastasis. Mechanism studies showed that circASAP1 acts as a competing endogenous RNA for microRNA 326 (miR-326) and microRNA 532-5p (miR-532-5p), both of which are tumor suppressors in HCC. We found that mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) 1 and colony stimulating factor (CSF)-1 were direct common targets for microRNA 326 (miR-326) and microRNA 532-5p (miR-532-5p), which were regulated by circASAP1. CircASAP1 promotes HCC cell proliferation and invasion by regulating miR-326/miR-532-5p-MAPK1 signaling and, furthermore, mediates tumor-associated macrophage infiltration by regulating the miR-326/miR-532-5p-CSF-1 pathway. Clinical HCC samples exhibited a positive correlation between circASAP1 expression and levels of CSF-1, MAPK1, and CD68+ tumor-associated macrophages, all of which were predictive of patient outcomes.

CONCLUSION

We identified circASAP1 as a key regulator of HCC metastasis that acts on miR-326/miR-532-5p-MAPK1/CSF-1 signaling and serves as a prognostic predictor in patients with HCC.

Serum exosomal long noncoding RNAs lnc-FAM72D-3 and lnc-EPC1-4 as diagnostic biomarkers for hepatocellular carcinoma

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), such as LINC00462, HOTAIR, and MALAT1, are significantly upregulated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tissues. However, lncRNA expression in the serum of HCC patients is still unclear. To identify candidate lncRNAs for HCC diagnosis, we purified exosomal total RNA from the serum of healthy volunteers (controls) and hepatitis, cirrhosis, and HCC patients. To assess the function of lncRNAs, small interfering RNAs and overexpression vectors were designed and cell viability and cell apoptosis assays conducted. The exosomes of the control group had a larger number of lncRNAs with a high amount of alternative splicing compared to hepatic disease patients. qPCR assays showed that lnc-FAM72D-3, lnc-GPR89B-15, lncZEB2-19, and lnc-EPC1-4 are differentially expressed in HCC. Furthermore, the expression level of lnc-EPC1-4 correlated with age. While the expression levels of lnc-GPR89B-15 and lnc-EPC1-4 correlated with serum alpha-fetoprotein level. lnc-FAM72D-3 knockdown decreased cell viability and promoted cell apoptosis, indicating that lnc-FAM72D-3 functions as an oncogene in HCC. In contrast, lnc-EPC1-4 overexpression inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell apoptosis, indicating that it functions as a tumor suppressor gene. Collectively, these findings show that lnc-FAM72D-3 and lnc-EPC1-4 play a novel role that might contribute to hepatocarcinogenesis and identify potential candidate biomarkers for HCC diagnosis.

Liver Fibrosis and Inflammation under the Control of ERK2

Chronic liver injury could lead the formation of liver fibrosis, eventually some would develop to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), one of the leading malignancies worldwide. The aim of the study is to dissect the role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 (ERK2) signaling in liver fibrosis and inflammation. The choline-deficient, ethionine-supplemented (CDE) diet could lead to fatty livers and generate oval cells, activate hepatocyte stellate cell (HSC) and recruit immune cells as the liver fibrosis model mice. WT and ERK2 deficient (ERK2^−/−) mice were compared in terms of liver weight/body weight, liver function, liver fibrosis markers and the differential gene expression in hepatotoxicity. ERK2^−/− mice display the less degree of liver fibrosis when compared to WT mice. The protein level of alpha smooth muscle (α-SMA) was reduced and several hepatocellular carcinoma-related genes such as MMP9, FoxM1 were down-regulated. In addition, the cell proliferation and the percentages of activated T cells were reduced in ERK2^−/− mice upon liver injury. Therefore, ERK2 plays an important role in regulating liver cirrhosis and inflammation.

Catechol inhibits epidermal growth factor-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and stem cell-like properties in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a major cellular process in which epithelial cells lose cell polarity and cell-cell adhesion and become motility and invasiveness by transforming into mesenchymal cells. Catechol is one of the natural compounds present in fruits and vegetables and has various pharmacological and physiological activities including anti-carcinogenic effects. However, the effects of catechol on EMT has not been reported. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is one of the growth factors and is known to play a role in inducing EMT. The present study showed that catechol suppressed not only the morphological changes to the mesenchymal phenotype of epithelial HCC cells, but also the reduction of E-cadherin and the increment of Vimentin, which are typical hallmark of EMT. In addition, catechol suppressed EMT-related steps such as migration, invasion, anoikis resistance acquisition, and stem cell-like characterization through the EGFR-AKT-ERK signaling pathway during liver cancer metastasis. Therefore, these results suggest that catechol may be able to regulate the early metastasis of liver cancer in vitro.

Relative Efficacy of Systemic Treatments for Patients with Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma According to Viral Status: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Several clinical trials that tested the efficacy of systemic treatments for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) showed a tendency that patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection had different survival benefits from targeted agents.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to assess the comparative efficacy of systemic targeted therapies according to HBV and HCV status in first-line and second- or later-line treatments for advanced HCC.

METHODS

PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane database, and meeting abstracts were searched through to January 2019. A Bayesian network meta-analysis was performed to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) for overall survival with 95% credible intervals (CrIs) and determine the ranking of the included regimens.

RESULTS

Sixteen trials involving 6410 patients were included in the meta-analysis. In the first-line treatment setting, lenvatinib was the best agent for both HBV and HCV subgroups, presenting the most favorable HR versus sorafenib (HR 0.83, 95% CrI 0.68-1.01 and HR 0.91, 95% CrI 0.66-1.25, respectively), and was ranked as the best agent [surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA) value of 87% and 85%, respectively] among the included drugs. In second-line therapy, regorafenib showed the lowest HR versus placebo (HR 0.58, 95% CrI 0.41-0.82) in the HBV subgroup, whereas no agent was significantly more effective than placebo in the HCV subgroup.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with sorafenib, lenvatinib was more efficacious in the HBV subgroup than in the HCV subgroup, and the relative ranking of sorafenib in the HBV subgroup was lower than in the HCV subgroup. Each targeted agent reported to be the best by viral etiology and line of treatment could be carefully recommended in each subgroup.

Haprolid Inhibits Tumor Growth of Hepatocellular Carcinoma through Rb/E2F and Akt/mTOR Inhibition

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents a major health burden with limited curative treatment options. There is a substantial unmet need to develop innovative approaches to impact the progression of advanced HCC. Haprolid is a novel natural component isolated from myxobacteria. Haprolid has been reported as a potent selective cytotoxin against a panel of tumor cells in recent studies including HCC cells. The aims of this study are to evaluate the antitumor effect of haprolid in HCC and to understand its underlying molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

The efficacy of haprolid was evaluated in human HCC cell lines (Huh-7, Hep3B and HepG2) and xenograft tumors (NMRI-Foxn1^nu mice with injection of Hep3B cells). Cytotoxic activity of haprolid was determined by the WST-1 and crystal violet assay. Wound healing, transwell and tumorsphere assays were performed to investigate migration and invasion of HCC cells. Apoptosis and cell-cycle distribution were measured by flow cytometry. The effects of haprolid on the Rb/E2F and Akt/mTOR pathway were examined by immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

haprolid treatment significantly inhibited cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) was impaired by haprolid treatment and the expression level of N-cadherin, vimentin and Snail was downregulated. Moreover, growth of HCC cells in vitro was suppressed by inhibition of G1/S transition, and partially by induction of apoptosis. The drug induced downregulation of cell cycle regulatory proteins cyclin A, cyclin B and CDK2 and induced upregulation of p21 and p27. Further evidence showed that these effects of haprolid were associated with Rb/E2F downregulation and Akt/mTOR inhibition. Finally, in vivo nude mice experiments demonstrated significant inhibition of tumor growth upon haprolid treatment.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that haprolid inhibits the growth of HCC through dual inhibition of Rb/E2F and Akt/mTOR pathways. Therefore, haprolid might be considered as a new and promising candidate for the palliative therapy of HCC.

Beneficial effect of fluoxetine on anti-tumor progression on hepatocellular carcinoma and non-small cell lung cancer bearing animal model

Fluoxetine, an antidepressant, has been indicated to elicit anti-cancer response in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in vitro. However, anticancer effect and mechanism of fluoxetine in HCC and NSCLC in vivo still needs to be elucidated. In this study, we showed anticancer efficacy and inhibitory mechanism of fluoxetine on the tumor progression of HCC and NSCLC in vivo. Tumor growth was significantly inhibited with fluoxetine treatment in HCC and NSCLC in vivo. Fluoxetine obviously decreased expression of cell proliferative, anti-apoptotic, invasion-associated proteins including Cyclin-D1, survivin, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA). Importantly, fluoxetine diminished the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 which recognized as one of the critical transcription factors in tumor progression. Inhibition of AKT or extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) phosphorylation was linked to NF-κB inactivation in NSCLC or HCC in vitro. Furthermore, expression of AKT or ERK phosphorylation was effectively attenuated by fluoxetine treatment in NSCLC or HCC in vivo. In addition, fluoxetine also triggered extrinsic/intrinsic apoptotic signaling by activating caspase-3, -8, and -9 in HCC and NSCLC. Our findings suggest that fluoxetine may represent as a promising adjuvant for patients with HCC or NSCLC. In conclude, the results also suggested the blockage of AKT/NF-κB or ERK/NF-κB activation and the induction of apoptosis are associated with fluoxetine-inhibited tumor progression of HCC or NSCLC in vivo.

Activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase is associated with hepatocellular carcinoma with aggressive phenotypes

AIM

Sorafenib inhibits multiple kinase signaling pathways, including the rat sarcoma virus (Ras)/rapidly accelerated fibrosarcoma (Raf)/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway, and is a promising therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the role of ERK activation in HCC remains unclear. This study was designed to investigate the potential link between ERK activation and aggressive HCC phenotypes.

METHODS

We evaluated nuclear ERK expression by immunohistochemistry in 154 resected HCC nodules from 136 patients. We then investigated the associations of ERK expression with the clinicopathological characteristics of HCC, c-MET expression, and the molecular subclass biomarkers Ki-67, keratin 19 (KRT19, CK19, or K19), and sal-like protein 4. Multivariate Cox regression analysis was carried out to determine independent prognostic factors for overall survival and recurrence-free survival. The effects of ERK activation by hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) on eight HCC cell lines were further examined.

RESULTS

High-level nuclear expression of ERK was observed in 20 (13%) of 154 nodules and was significantly associated with higher serum alpha-fetoprotein levels (P = 0.034), poorer differentiation (P = 0.003), a higher Ki-67 index (P < 0.001), high-level expression of c-MET (P = 0.008), KRT19 (P = 0.002), or sal-like protein 4 (P < 0.001), and shorter overall survival (multivariate hazard ratio 3.448; P = 0.028) and recurrence-free survival (multivariate hazard ratio 2.755; P = 0.004). HCC cells treated with hepatocyte growth factor showed enhanced cell proliferation together with ERK activation and upregulated KRT19 expression, both of which were inhibited by sorafenib.

CONCLUSIONS

High-level ERK activation is associated with a KRT19-positive highly proliferative subtype of HCC with a dismal prognosis. These findings support the key role of the hepatocyte growth factor/c-MET/ERK axis in HCC progression.

Apoptosis induction and ERK/NF-κB inactivation are associated with magnolol-inhibited tumor progression in hepatocellular carcinoma in vivo

Although hepatitis B and/or hepatitis C virus were recognized as major risk factor for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), certain occupational, environmental, and lifestyle factors also play key roles in HCC tumorigenesis. Moreover, in molecular signaling route, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) signaling was found to be overexpressed and linked to poor prognosis in HCC. Thus, to identify possible nature compound that can suppress ERK/NF-κB may be benefit to HCC patient. Magnolol, a natural compound derived from herbal plant Magnolia officinalis, has been recognized as a liver protection and antitumor reagent. However, whether magnolol-inhibited HCC progression correlates with disruption of ERK/NF-κB signaling is remained unclear. In this studies, we performed SK-Hep1/luc2 HCC bearing animal model to investigate the anticancer efficacy and mechanism of magnolol on tumor progression. Tumor size and tumor growth rate were dramatically suppressed after treatment of magnolol. In addition, expression of phospho-ERK (p-ERK), NF-κB p65 (Ser536), and tumor progression-associated proteins, such as matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP), and CyclinD1 were all significantly decreased by magnolol. Most important, major extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis signaling factors, including active caspase-8 and caspase-9 were both enhanced by magnolol. This study indicated that apoptosis induction through extrinsic/intrinsic pathways and blockage of ERK/NF-κB activation were associated with magnolol-inhibited tumor progression in HCC in vivo.

Aqueous Ocimum gratissimum extract induces cell apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has exhibited a poor overall survival rate of only six to ten months, and the urgency of the development of more effective novel agents is ever present. In this line of research, we aimed to investigate the effects and inhibitive mechanisms of aqueous Ocimum gratissimum leaf extract (OGE), the extract of Ocimum gratissimum, which is commonly used as a therapeutic herb for its numerous pharmacological properties, on malignant HCC cells. Our results showed that OGE decreased the cell viability of HCC SK-Hep1 and HA22T cells in a dose-dependent manner (from 400 to 800 µg/mL), while there is little effect on Chang liver cells. Moreover, cell-cycle analysis shows increased Sub-G1 cell count in SK-Hep1 and HA22T cells which is not observed in Chang liver cells. These findings raise suspicion that the OGE-induced cell death may be mediated through proteins that regulate cell cycle and apoptosis in SK-Hep1 and HA22T cells, and further experimentation revealed that OGE treatment resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in caspase 3 and PARP expressions and in CDK4and p-ERK1/2expressions. Moreover, animal tests also exhibited decreased HCC tumor growth by OGE treatment. We therefore suggest that the inhibition of cell viability and tumor growth induced by OGE may be correlated to the alteration of apoptosis-related proteins.

Cyclosporin A activates human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2 cells) proliferation: implication of EGFR-mediated ERK1/2 signaling pathway

One of the most common causes of cancer mortality worldwide is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) pathway has been shown to play an important role in the development and progression of HCC. Here, we demonstrate that the immunosuppressive agent cyclosporin A (CsA) has the ability to increase the cellular growth in HCC (HepG2 cells) via activation of ERK1/2 signaling cascade. It was found that ERK1/2 phosphorylation induced by CsA was highly reduced in the presence of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger polyethylene glycol-superoxide dismutase (PEG-SOD). Furthermore, it was observed that inhibition of metalloproteinase activity using TAPI-2 prevents ERK1/2 activation by CsA. Moreover, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain 17 (ADAM-17) activity was found to be critical for ERK phosphorylation by CsA. In addition, CsA-induced ERK phosphorylation was highly reduced in the presence of either neutralizing anti-heparin-binding-epidermal growth factor (HB-EGF) antibody or UO126 (MEK inhibitor). By using the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor AG1478, it was found that EGFR is critical for ERK phosphorylation induced by CsA. Furthermore, CsA-induced cell proliferation was strongly reduced in the presence of either PEG-SOD or TAPI-2 or neutralizing anti-ADAM17 antibody or neutralizing anti-HB-EGF antibody or AG1478 or UO126. Collectively, these data demonstrate that CsA has the ability to activate ERK1/2 signaling cascade that could be translated into an increase in HepG2 cell proliferation. Furthermore, these data support the role of ROS, ADAM-17, and EGFR in ERK1/2 signaling activation and subsequent cell proliferation induced by CsA in HepG2 cells.

Targeting Jak/Stat pathway as a therapeutic strategy against SP/CD44+ tumorigenic cells in Akt/β-catenin-driven hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Hepatic resection and liver transplantation with adjuvant chemo- and radiotherapy are the mainstay of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) treatment, but the 5-year survival rate remains poor because of frequent recurrence and intrahepatic metastasis. Only sorafenib and lenvatinib are currently approved for the first-line treatment of advanced, unresected HCC, but they yield modest survival benefits. Thus, there is a need to identify new therapeutic targets to improve current HCC treatment modalities.

METHODS

The HCC tumor model was generated by hydrodynamic transfection of AKT1 and β-catenin (CTNNB1) oncogenes. Cancer cells with stemness properties were characterized following isolation using side population (SP) and CD44 surface markers by flow cytometry. The effect of Jak/Stat inhibitors was analyzed in vitro by using tumorsphere culture and in vivo using an allograft mouse model.

RESULTS

Co-activation of both Wnt/β-catenin and Akt/mTOR pathways was found in 14.4% of our HCC patient cohort. More importantly, these patients showed poorer survival than those with either Wnt/β-catenin or Akt/mTOR pathway activation alone, demonstrating the clinical relevance of our study. In addition, we observed that Akt/β-catenin tumors contained a subpopulation of cells with stem/progenitor-like characteristics identified through SP analysis and expression of the cancer stem cell-like marker CD44, which may contribute to tumor self-renewal and drug resistance. Consequently, we identified small molecule inhibitors of the Jak/Stat pathway that demonstrated efficacy in mitigating tumor proliferation and formation in Akt/β-catenin-driven HCC.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, we have shown that Akt/β-catenin tumors contain a subpopulation of tumor-initiating cells with stem/progenitor-like characteristics which can be effectively targeted with inhibitors of the Jak/Stat pathway, demonstrating that inhibition of the Jak/Stat pathway could be an alternative method to overcome drug resistance and effectively treat Akt/β-catenin-driven HCC tumors.

LAY SUMMARY

The prognosis for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma is poor, partly because of the lack of effective treatment options for those with more advanced disease. In this study, we identified a subpopulation of cancer cells with stem cell-like properties that were critical for tumor maintenance and growth in a mouse model of hepatocellular carcinoma. Through further experiments, we demonstrated that the Jak/Stat pathway is a promising therapeutic target in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Liver Tumor Microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment (TME) has recently been recognized as an important part of tumor development and growth. TME is a dynamic system orchestrated by immune, cancer and inflammatory cells, as well as the stromal tissue and surrounding extracellular matrix. While TME of primary hepatic tumors is usually characterized by a strong inflammatory background, the TME of liver metastases typically consists of otherwise healthy liver tissue. Chronic inflammation and hypoxia are key to the development and progression of primary liver cancer. The injury caused by chronic inflammation creates a condition of immune evasion that initiates a cascade of events that eventually leads to liver carcinogenesis.With liver metastases, primary tumors "prime" the target organs via secreting factors that induce expansion of myeloid cell populations and create a solid ground for successful cancer settlement. Once in the liver, metastatic cells begin a neovascularization process that is driven mainly by VEGF and FGF. Due to high mortality rates associated with liver cancer, as well as the limited effective treatment options for advanced disease, new therapies are urgently needed. Targeting a single molecule in a number of interactions between the tumor and the TME is highly unlikely to reduce tumor growth. Future trials should focus on combination therapies (i.e. targeted therapies combined with immunotherapy) to treat liver malignancies efficiently.

miR-4510 blocks hepatocellular carcinoma development through RAF1 targeting and RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signalling inactivation

BACKGROUND

Therapeutic outcomes using the multikinase inhibitors, sorafenib and regorafenib, remain unsatisfactory for patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Thus, new drug modalities are needed. We recently reported the remarkable capacity of miR-4510 to impede the growth of HCC and hepatoblastoma through Glypican-3 (GPC3) targeting and Wnt pathway inactivation.

METHODS

To identify new targets of miR-4510, we used a label-free proteomic approach and reported down-regulation of RAF proto-oncogene serine/threonine-protein kinase (RAF1) by miR-4510. Because the tumourigenic role of RAF1 in HCC is controversial, we further studied RAF1:miR-4510 interactions using cellular, molecular as well as functional approaches and a chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) xenograft model.

RESULTS

We found an increase in RAF1 protein in 59.3% of HCC patients and a specific up-regulation of its transcript in proliferative tumours. We showed that miR-4510 inactivates the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK pathway and reduces the expression of downstream targets (ie c-Fos proto-oncogene [FOS]) through RAF1 direct targeting. At a cellular level, miR-4510 inhibited HCC cell proliferation and migration and induced senescence in part by lowering RAF1 messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein expression. Finally, we confirmed the pro-tumoural function of RAF1 protein in HCC cells and its ability to sustain HCC tumour progression in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

In this work, we confirm that RAF1 acts as an oncogene in HCC and further demonstrate that miR-4510 acts as a strong tumour suppressor in the liver by targeting many proto-oncogenes, including GPC3 and RAF1, and subsequently controlling key biological and signalling pathways among which Wnt and RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signals.

Protein Kinase B Inactivation Is Associated with Magnolol-Enhanced Therapeutic Efficacy of Sorafenib in Hepatocellular Carcinoma In Vitro and In Vivo

Although sorafenib, an oral multikinase inhibitor, was approved as a treatment drug of advance hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), treatment efficacy still requires improvement. Searching for the adjuvant reagent for enhancing sorafenib efficacy remains as a critical issue. Sorafenib has been proved to suppress extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) in HCC; however, protein kinase B (AKT) was not affected by it. Targeting AKT in combination with sorafenib could be an important breakthrough point of HCC treatment. Many herbal compounds and composite formulas have been shown to enhance anti-HCC activity of sorafenib. Magnolol is a bioactive compound extracted from the bark of the Magnolia officinalis and has been shown to induce apoptosis and inhibit cell invasion in HCC in vitro. However, whether magnolol sensitizes HCC to sorafenib is ambiguous. In this study, we indicated that magnolol significantly enhanced sorafenib-diminished tumor cell growth, expression of anti-apoptotic proteins, and migration/invasion ability compared to sorafenib alone. Magnolol significantly boosted sorafenib-induced extrinsic/intrinsic dependent apoptosis pathways in HCC. Notably sorafenib could not reduce protein level of AKT (Ser473), but expression of AKT (Ser473) was significantly decreased by magnolol or magnolol combined with sorafenib. LY294002 as specific AKT inhibitor was used to confirm that AKT inactivation may promote anticancer effect of sorafenib. Taken together, AKT inhibition is associated with magnolol-enhanced the therapeutic effect of sorafenib in HCC. We suggested magnolol as the potential adjuvant which may enhance therapeutic benefits of sorafenib in patients with HCC.

LASP1 promotes proliferation, metastasis, invasion in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and through direct interaction with HSPA1A

LIM and SH3 protein 1 (LASP1) is a specific focal adhesion protein that promotes metastasis in a variety of tumours. However, its role in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) has not been fully validated. The purpose of this study was to analyse the interaction of LASP1 and its binding partner in HNSCC. The expression of LASP1 and HSPA1A in HNSCC was analysed by real-time PCR and Western blot. The effects of LASP1 on the biology behaviour of HNSCC cell lines were observed in vivo and in vitro. Co-immunoprecipitation analysis was performed to confirm the interaction between LASP1 and HSPA1A. LASP1 was highly expressed in HNSCC and associated with poor prognosis for patients. LASP1 also promoted cell proliferation, colony formation, invasion and cell cycle G2/M phase transition. Heat shock protein family A member 1A (HSPA1A) is identified as a chaperone protein of LASP1 and co-localized in the cytoplasm. HSPA1A positively regulates the interaction of LASP1 with P-AKT and enhances the malignant behaviour of HNSCC cells. LASP1 and HSPA1A are both up-regulated in HNSCC, and directly binds to each other. Double inhibition of LASP1 and HSPA1A expression may be an effective method for the treatment of HNSCC.

Role of BRAF in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Rationale for Future Targeted Cancer Therapies

The few therapeutic strategies for advance hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) on poor knowledge of its biology. For several years, sorafenib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) inhibitor, has been the approved treatment option, to date, for advanced HCC patients. Its activity is the inhibition of the retrovirus-associated DNA sequences protein (RAS)/Rapidly Accelerated Fibrosarcoma protein (RAF)/mitogen-activated and extracellular-signal regulated kinase (MEK)/extracellular-signal regulated kinases (ERK) signaling pathway. However, the efficacy of sorafenib is limited by the development of drug resistance, and the major neuronal isoform of RAF, BRAF and MEK pathways play a critical and central role in HCC escape from TKIs activity. Advanced HCC patients with a BRAF mutation display a multifocal and/or more aggressive behavior with resistance to TKI. Moreover, also long non-coding RNA (lnc-RNA) have been studied in epigenetic studies for BRAF aggressiveness in HCC. So far, lnc-RNA of BRAF could be another mechanism of cancer proliferation and TKI escape in HCC and the inhibition could become a possible strategy treatment for HCC. Moreover, recent preclinical studies and clinical trials evidence that combined treatments, involving alternative pathways, have an important role of therapy for HCC and they could bypass resistance to the following TKIs: MEK, ERKs/ribosomal protein S6 kinase 2 (RSK2), and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). These initial data must be confirmed in clinical studies, which are currently ongoing. Translational research discoveries could create new strategies of targeted therapy combinations, including BRAF pathway, and they could eventually bring light in new treatment of HCC.

Experimental Models to Define the Genetic Predisposition to Liver Cancer

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a frequent human cancer and the most frequent liver tumor. The study of genetic mechanisms of the inherited predisposition to HCC, implicating gene-gene and gene-environment interaction, led to the discovery of multiple gene loci regulating the growth and multiplicity of liver preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions, thus uncovering the action of multiple genes and epistatic interactions in the regulation of the individual susceptibility to HCC. The comparative evaluation of the molecular pathways involved in HCC development in mouse and rat strains differently predisposed to HCC indicates that the genes responsible for HCC susceptibility control the amplification and/or overexpression of c-Myc, the expression of cell cycle regulatory genes, and the activity of Ras/Erk, AKT/mTOR, and of the pro-apoptotic Rassf1A/Nore1A and Dab2IP/Ask1 pathways, the methionine cycle, and DNA repair pathways in mice and rats. Comparative functional genetic studies, in rats and mice differently susceptible to HCC, showed that preneoplastic and neoplastic lesions of resistant mouse and rat strains cluster with human HCC with better prognosis, while the lesions of susceptible mouse and rats cluster with HCC with poorer prognosis, confirming the validity of the studies on the influence of the genetic predisposition to hepatocarinogenesis on HCC prognosis in mouse and rat models. Recently, the hydrodynamic gene transfection in mice provided new opportunities for the recognition of genes implicated in the molecular mechanisms involved in HCC pathogenesis and prognosis. This method appears to be highly promising to further study the genetic background of the predisposition to this cancer.