An educate, test and treat model towards elimination of hepatitis C infection in Egypt: Feasibility and effectiveness in 73 villages

Integrated policy of medical expense subsidies and clinical registry for patients with liver cancer and decompensated cirrhosis in Japan

Chronic hepatitis B and C are among the most significant infectious diseases worldwide, and are major risk factors for liver cirrhosis and liver cancer. In Japan, comprehensive hepatitis measures are implemented for the testing and treatment of viral hepatitis, thus enabling the early diagnosis of liver cancer. Nevertheless, patients with decompensated cirrhosis and liver cancer often have unfavorable prognoses and require repetitive long-term treatment. In fiscal year 2018, an integrated policy of medical expense subsidies and research was established in Japan that aimed to alleviate patients' financial burden and launch the clinical registry of advanced liver disease. Over time, updates to the eligibility for the subsidy increased access to patients and has led to an increased number of beneficiaries. Additionally, the accumulation of clinical data in the registry has revealed the treatment choices for these diseases. However, the disparities in efforts across prefectures have also become evident. Raising public awareness of the policy and tightening the multisector healthcare network are keys to success in supporting qualifying patients with advanced liver disease.

Development of an evidence-based hepatitis C education program to enhance public health literacy in the Australian prison sector: The Hepatitis in Prisons Education program (HepPEd)

BACKGROUND

Australia's prisons have a high chronic hepatitis C (HCV) prevalence (8 %). Antiviral therapies and prison-based hepatitis services are available, but only a minority of those eligible are being treated. Improving the HCV public health literacy of the prison sector via targeted education may overcome key barriers to scale-up treatment. This paper describes the: i) HCV public health literacy of the prison setting; ii) barriers and solutions for HCV education and service engagement; iii) HCV education program co-design and development processes; and iv) HepPEd resources.

METHODS

A national needs assessment was conducted to analyse the HCV public health literacy of the target audience groups in the prisons (healthcare providers; custodial officers; people in prison) to inform development of a prison-specific HCV education program (HepPEd). Structured interviews were conducted with key informants (n = 40). Three National Steering Committees, one for each target group, were convened to co-design and develop HepPEd.

RESULTS

Only healthcare providers involved with hepatitis care were considered to have 'good' to 'very good' HCV health literacy (including knowledge, attitudes, and capabilities), with all other groups considered less favourably. Key barriers identified included being time poor (healthcare providers), poor motivation (custodial officers) and stigma (people in prison). Peer education delivery was considered a key facilitator for custodial officers and people in prison. A suite of multi-modal resources addressing the perceived gaps in HCV health literacy was developed, with a broad theme of 'Let's talk about hep C'. Delivery of HepPEd was designed to overcome key barriers and utilise facilitators for each group.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant gaps in HCV health literacy were perceived amongst the target audience groups. The comprehensive co-design and development processes utilised in HepPEd suggest the program will be well-placed to improve the HCV public health literacy of the prison sector and thereby enhance HCV testing and treatment rates amongst people in prison.

Feasibility, safety, efficacy and potential scaling-up of sofosbuvir-based HCV treatment in Central and West Africa: (TAC ANRS 12311 trial)

Access to Hepatis C treatment in Sub-Saharan Africa is a clinical, public health and ethical concern. The multi-country open-label trial TAC ANRS 12311 allowed assessing the feasibility, safety, efficacy of a specific care model of HCV treatment and retreatment in patients with hepatitis C in Sub Saharan Africa. Between November 2015 and March 2017, with follow-up until mid 2019, treatment-naïve patients with HCV without decompensated cirrhosis or liver cancer were recruited to receive 12 week-treatment with either sofosbuvir + ribavirin (HCV genotype 2) or sofosbuvir + ledipasvir (genotype 1 or 4) and retreatment with sofosbuvir + velpatasvir + voxilaprevir in case of virological failure. The primary outcome was sustained virological response at 12 weeks after end of treatment (SVR12). Secondary outcomes included treatment adherence, safety and SVR12 in patients who were retreated due to non-response to first-line treatment. The model of care relied on both viral load assessment and educational sessions to increase patient awareness, adherence and health literacy. The study recruited 120 participants, 36 HIV-co-infected, and 14 cirrhotic. Only one patient discontinued treatment because of return to home country. Neither death nor severe adverse event occurred. SVR12 was reached in 107 patients (89%): (90%) in genotype 1 or 2, and 88% in GT-4. All retreated patients (n = 13) reached SVR12. HCV treatment is highly acceptable, safe and effective under this model of care. Implementation research is now needed to scale up point-of-care HCV testing and SVR assessment, along with community involvement in patient education, to achieve HCV elimination in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Chronic viral hepatitis C micro-elimination program using telemedicine in Guigang city

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) represents a formidable menace to human health, necessitating urgent attention. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy and safety of HCV health management in the city of Guigang which consists of five districts, employing a comprehensive multi-modal approach. The study systematically carried out HCV screening in Guigang city which consists of five districts, such as Gangbei District, Gangnan District, Guiping District, Qintang District, and Pingnan District from 1 January 2016 to 30 December 2022. The target population consisted of individuals residing in these aforementioned districts, falling within the age range of 30-75 years. A multidisciplinary HCV management team was established to deliver anti-HCV screening, diagnosis, and direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy. The primary outcome of interest was the achievement of sustained virologic response (SVR). A total of 2489 individuals were included as the target population, with 1694 individuals residing in Gangbei District, 202 in Gangnan District, 111 in Qintang District, 167 in Pingnan District, and 315 in Guiping District. Out of these individuals, 2478 were subjected to anti-HCV screening. The screening rates varied across the districts, ranging from a peak of 99.55% in Guigang City to a nadir of 98.41% in Guiping District. Remarkably, within Guigang City, a noteworthy enhancement was observed in the HCV-RNA diagnosis rate from 23.4% prior to program implementation to a remarkable 100% following 7 years of intervention and management. Furthermore, the diagnosis and treatment coordination rate experienced a substantial improvement, rising from 26.8% before program inception to 80%. Importantly, a total of 1180 individuals affected by hepatitis C were successfully cured, equating to a 100% cure rate. Logistic regression analysis revealed a significant association between serological status and factors such as Aging, bilirubin, and glutamic oxalacetic transaminase. The findings from our investigation unveil a pioneering HCV management model, exemplified by the Guigang model, which has contributed crucially to HCV microclearance efforts and serves as an invaluable reference for future initiatives.

The Role of Nonprofit and Nongovernmental Organizations and People With Viral Hepatitis on the Path Toward Hepatitis C Virus Elimination

Nonprofit and nongovernmental organizations have driven and continue to drive hepatitis C elimination by putting people with viral hepatitis and their affected communities at the center of hepatitis elimination efforts. They have been key in driving the decentralization of services and community-based delivery in the hepatitis care pathway to improve the health and well-being of the populations most affected by hepatitis C. This article explores how the formation of the World Hepatitis Alliance (WHA), an international network of community organizations in >100 countries, led to powerful advocacy from community leaders and people with hepatitis, resulting in the establishment of World Hepatitis Day. Since then, the World Health Organization (WHO) has recognized the importance of viral hepatitis by setting the 2030 global elimination targets. WHA and WHO have collaborated on 3 World Hepatitis Summits, which have built momentum across many sectors to help elevate hepatitis through the global health agenda. The article discusses their paradigm-shifting campaigns and also presents civil society organizations' hepatitis elimination efforts in Egypt, Mongolia, Bangladesh, and the United Kingdom and their significant impact through local resource mobilization and engagement of national governments.

Micro-elimination of hepatitis C virus infection in the rural and remote areas of Taiwan - A multi-center collaborative care model

INTRODUCTION

Taiwan has several hepatitis C virus (HCV) hyper-endemic areas. We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of a collaborative HCV care system with an outreach decentralized strategy among the resource-constrained rural/remote areas of Taiwan.

METHODS

The pilot study was conducted in four high HCV-endemic townships in the rural/remote areas of Taoyuan, Alishan, Zhuoxi and Xiulin. Registered residents who worked or lived in the four areas and were aged 30-75 years were invited to participate in this program. Multidisciplinary HCV care teams provided outreach decentralized services of anti-HCV screening, link-to-diagnosis, and link-to-treatment with direct-acting antiviral agents (DAA). The primary end-point was sustained virological response (SVR).

RESULTS

Of 8291 registered residents who were invited as the target population, 7807 (94.2%) subjects received anti-HCV screening, with the average anti-HCV prevalence rate of 14.2% (1108/7807) (range among four areas: 11.8%-16.7%). The rate of link-to-diagnosis was 94.4% (1046/1108) of anti-HCV-positive subjects (range: 90.9%-100%) with an average HCV-viremic rate of 55.1% (576/1046) (range: 50.0%-64.3%). The link-to-treat rate was 94.4% (544/576) in HCV-viremic subjects (range from 92.7% to 97.2%). Overall, 523 (96.1%) patients achieved an SVR (range: 94.7%-97.6%). Eventually, the overall effectiveness was 80.7% (range: 74.6%-93.1%). The presence of hepatocellular carcinoma at baseline was the only factor associated with DAA failure. The DAA regimens were well-tolerated.

CONCLUSION

The outreach decentralized community-based care system with DAA therapy was highly effective and safe in the achievement of HCV micro-elimination in the resource-constrained rural and remote regions, which could help us to tackle the disparity.

Hepatitis C virus: A critical approach to who really needs treatment

Introduction of effective drugs in the treatment of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has prompted the World Health Organization to declare a global eradication target by 2030. Propositions have been made to screen the general population and treat all HCV carriers irrespective of the disease status. A year ago the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus appeared causing a worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 disease. Huge financial resources were redirected, and the pandemic became the first priority in every country. In this review, we examined the feasibility of the World Health Organization elimination program and the actual natural course of HCV infection. We also identified and analyzed certain comorbidity factors that may aggravate the progress of HCV and some marginalized subpopulations with characteristics favoring HCV dissemination. Alcohol consumption, HIV coinfection and the presence of components of metabolic syndrome including obesity, hyperuricemia and overt diabetes were comorbidities mostly responsible for increased liver-related morbidity and mortality of HCV. We also examined the significance of special subpopulations like people who inject drugs and males having sex with males. Finally, we proposed a different micro-elimination screening and treatment program that can be implemented in all countries irrespective of income. We suggest that screening and treatment of HCV carriers should be limited only in these particular groups.

Seroprevalence and epidemiological characteristics of HDV infection among HBV patients in the Nile Delta, Egypt

The epidemiology of HDV infection worldwide is obscure. Mapping the epidemiology of the infection is highly required, so, we aimed to estimate the prevalence of hepatitis D virus infection among chronic hepatitis B patients and the epidemiological characteristics in the Nile delta in Egypt. This was a prospective observational cross-sectional study including consecutive chronic hepatitis B patients in the out-patient clinics at the Egyptian Liver Research Institute and Hospital (ELRIAH) and its satellites in the Nile Delta from January 2016 until August 2018. They were recruited from patients enrolled in Educate, Test and Treat program, which was implemented in 73 Egyptian Villages. Subjects were tested by using HBsAg serological rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs), and then HBV DNA by PCR was done in HBsAg-positive cases. HDV IgG antibody testing and confirmatory HDV RNA PCR were done. Complete liver functions, abdominal ultrasonography and FibroScan were also performed. The prevalence of HDV was 3.4% using anti-delta antibody (22/631), and only 8 were positive for HDV RNA (8/22, 36.4%). Overall HDV prevalence using PCR was 8/631(1.27%). HDV-positive cases were mainly males (68.2%). Eight cases were cirrhotic (36.4%), 3 (13.6%) had HCC and 7 (31.8%) were HBeAg positive. HDV prevalence is low among chronic hepatitis B patients in the Nile delta, Egypt. Screening for HDV IgG is recommended in CHB patients who had cirrhosis, HCC or HBeAg positive.

Regional progress towards hepatitis C elimination in the Western Pacific Region, 2015-2020

Chronic hepatitis C (HCV) infection is a major global public health threat and in 2019 there were an estimated 58 million infected globally and 290,000 deaths. Elimination of viral hepatitis B/C as a public health threat by 2030 is defined as a 90% incidence reduction and a 65% mortality reduction. The Western Pacific region is one of the most affected regions with 10 million people living with HCV, one-fifth of the global burden. We review progress towards HCV elimination in the Western Pacific region since 2015. Key developments in the region, which comprises of 37 high-and-middle-income countries, include the following: 20 countries have national hepatitis action plans, 19 have conducted recent disease burden and investment cases, 10 have scaled-up hepatitis services at primary health care level, and in 11 countries, domestic financing including social health insurance support DAA costs. We highlight six countries' experience in navigating the path towards HCV elimination: Cambodia, China, Malaysia, Mongolia, Philippines, and Viet Nam. Future initiatives to accelerate elimination are expanding access to community-based testing using HCV point-of-care tests among at-risk and general populations; adopting decentralized and integrated HCV one-stop services at harm reduction sites, detention settings and primary care; expanding treatment to include children and adolescents; address stigma and discrimination; and ensuring sustainable financing through domestic resources to scale-up testing, treatment and prevention. The COVID-19 pandemic has a significant impact on hepatitis response across the region on community and facility-based testing, treatment initiation, monitoring and cancer screening, which is projected to delay elimination goals.

Rapid Diagnostics for Hepatitis B and C Viruses in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

The global health challenge posed by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) persists, especially in low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs), where underdiagnosis of these viral infections remains a barrier to the elimination target of 2030. HBV and HCV infections are responsible for most liver-related mortality worldwide. Infected individuals are often unaware of their condition and as a result, continue to transmit these viruses. Although conventional diagnostic tests exist, in LMIC they are largely inaccessible due to high costs or a lack of trained personnel, resulting in poor linkage to care and increased infections. Timely and accurate diagnosis is needed to achieve elimination of hepatitis B and C by the year 2030 as set out by the World Health Organization Global Health Sector Strategy. In this review rapid diagnostic tests allowing for quick and cost-effective screening and diagnosis of HBV and HCV, are discussed, as are their features, including suitability, reliability, and applicability in LMIC, particularly those within Africa.

New hope for hepatitis C virus: Summary of global epidemiologic changes and novel innovations over 20 years

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a global health concern associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Before the approval of second-generation direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs), interferon therapy and liver transplantation constituted the mainstay of treatment. The introduction of well-tolerated oral DAAs in late 2013 has revolutionized HCV management with over 95% cure rates. The predominance of HCV-related liver transplantations has declined following the widespread approval of DAAs. Despite the unparallel efficacy observed among these novel therapies, pharmaceutical costs continue to limit equitable access to healthcare and likely contribute to the differential HCV infection rates observed globally. To reduce the burden of disease worldwide, essential agenda items for all countries must include the prioritization of integrated care models and access to DAAs therapies. Through transparent negotiations with the pharmaceutical industry, the consideration for compassionate release of medications to promote equitable division of care is paramount. Here we provide a literature review of HCV, changes in epidemiologic trends, access issues for current therapies, and global inequities in disease burden.

Hepatitis C Diagnosis: Simplified Solutions, Predictive Barriers, and Future Promises

The simplification of current hepatitis C diagnostic algorithms and the emergence of digital diagnostic devices will be very crucial to achieving the WHO's set goals of hepatitis C diagnosis (i.e., 90%) by 2030. From the last decade, hepatitis C diagnosis has been revolutionized by the advent and approval of state-of-the-art HCV diagnostic platforms which have been efficiently implemented in high-risk HCV populations in developed nations as well as in some low-to-middle income countries (LMICs) to identify millions of undiagnosed hepatitis C-infected individuals. Point-of-care (POC) rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs; POC-RDTs), RNA reflex testing, hepatitis C self-test assays, and dried blood spot (DBS) sample analysis have been proven their diagnostic worth in real-world clinical experiences both at centralized and decentralized diagnostic settings, in mass hepatitis C screening campaigns, and hard-to-reach aboriginal hepatitis C populations in remote areas. The present review article overviews the significance of current and emerging hepatitis C diagnostic packages to subvert the public health care burden of this 'silent epidemic' worldwide. We also highlight the challenges that remain to be met about the affordability, accessibility, and health system-related barriers to overcome while modulating the hepatitis C care cascade to adopt a 'test and treat' strategy for every hepatitis C-affected individual. We also elaborate some key measures and strategies in terms of policy and progress to be part of hepatitis C care plans to effectively link diagnosis to care cascade for rapid treatment uptake and, consequently, hepatitis C cure.

Usability and acceptability of self-testing for hepatitis C virus infection among the general population in the Nile Delta region of Egypt

Background

Self-testing for hepatitis C virus antibodies (HCVST) may be an additional strategy to expand access to hepatitis C virus (HCV) testing and support elimination efforts. We conducted a study to assess the usability and acceptability of HCVST among the general population in a semi-rural, high-HCV prevalence region in Egypt.

Methods

An observational study was conducted in two hospitals in the Nile Delta region. A trained provider gave an in-person demonstration on how to use the oral fluid HCVST followed by observation of the participant performing the test. Usability was assessed by observing errors made and difficulties faced by participants. Acceptability of HCV self-testing was assessed using an interviewer-administered semi-structured questionnaire.

Results

Of 116 participants enrolled, 17 (14.6%) had received no formal education. The majority (72%) of participants completed all testing steps without any assistance and interpreted the test results correctly. Agreement between participant-reported HCVST results and interpretation by a trained user was 86%, with a Cohen’s kappa of 0.6. Agreement between participant-reported HCVST results and provider-administered oral fluid HCV rapid test results was 97.2%, with a Cohen’s kappa of 0.75. The majority of participants rated the HCVST process as easy (53%) or very easy (44%), and 96% indicated they would be willing to use HCVST again and recommend it to their family and friends.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrates the high usability and acceptability of oral fluid HCVST in a general population. Further studies are needed to establish the optimal positioning of self-testing alongside facility-based testing to expand access to HCV diagnosis in both general and high-risk populations.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-11169-x.

Key Elements on the Pathway to HCV Elimination: Lessons Learned From the AASLD HCV Special Interest Group 2020

With a decade left to reach the ambitious goals for viral hepatitis elimination set out by the World Health Organization, many challenges remain. Despite the remarkable improvements in therapy for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, most people living with the infection remain undiagnosed, and only a fraction have received curative therapy. Accordingly, the 2020 HCV Special Interest Group symposium at the annual American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Liver Meeting examined policies and strategies for the scale-up of HCV testing and expanded access to HCV care and treatment outside the specialty setting, including primary care and drug treatment and settings for care of persons who inject drugs and other marginalized populations at risk for HCV infection. The importance of these paradigms in elimination efforts, including micro-elimination strategies, was explored, and the session also included discussion of hepatitis C vaccine development and other strategies to reduce mortality through the use of organs from HCV-infected organ donors for HCV-negative recipients. In this review, the key concepts raised at this important symposium are summarized.

Hepatitis C Virus Prevalence and Risk Factors in a Village in Northeastern Romania-A Population-Based Screening-The First Step to Viral Micro-Elimination

(1) Background: The World Health Organization adopted a strategy for the Global Health Sector on Viral Hepatitis in 2016, with the main objective of eliminating hepatitis C virus (HCV) by 2030. In this work, we aimed to evaluate the prevalence of HCV infection and risk factors in a Romanian village using population-based screening as part of the global C virus eradication program. (2) Methods: We conducted a prospective study from March 2019 to February 2020, based on a strategy as part of a project designed to educate, screen, treat and eliminate HCV infection in all adults in a village located in Northeastern Romania. (3) Results: In total, 3507 subjects were invited to be screened by rapid diagnostic orientation tests (RDOT). Overall, 2945 (84%) subjects were tested, out of whom 78 (2.64%) were found to have positive HCV antibodies and were scheduled for further evaluation in a tertiary center of gastroenterology/hepatology in order to be linked to care. In total, 66 (85%) subjects presented for evaluation and 55 (83%) had detectable HCV RNA. Of these, 54 (98%) completed antiviral treatment and 53 (99%) obtained a sustained virological response. (4) Conclusions: The elimination of hepatitis C worldwide has a higher chance of success if micro-elimination strategies based on mass screening are adopted.

Hepatitis C virus micro-elimination: Where do we stand?

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) elimination by 2030, using direct-acting antiviral treatments, has been promoted by the World Health Organization. This achievement is not attainable, however, particularly after the 2020 pandemic of the coronavirus disease 2019. Consequently, the more realistic objective of eliminating HCV from population segments for which targeted strategies of prevention and treatment are easily attained has been promoted in Europe, as a valid alternative. The underlying idea is that micro-elimination will ultimately lead to macro-elimination. The micro-elimination strategy may target different specific populations and at-risk groups. Different settings, including prisons and hospitals, have also been identified as micro-elimination scenarios. In addition, dedicated micro-elimination strategies have been designed that are tailored at the geographical level according to HCV epidemiology and individual country's income. The main elements of a valid and successful micro-elimination project are reliable epidemiological data and active involvement of all the stakeholders. Community involvement represents another essential component for a successful program.

Decentralised hepatitis C testing and treatment in rural Cambodia: evaluation of a simplified service model integrated in an existing public health system

BACKGROUND

Direct-acting antiviral treatment for hepatitis C virus (HCV) has provided the opportunity for simplified models of care delivered in decentralised settings by non-specialist clinical personnel. However, in low-income and middle-income countries, increasing overall access to HCV care remains an ongoing issue, particularly for populations outside of urban centres. We therefore aimed to implement a simplified model of HCV care via decentralised health services within a rural health operational district in Battambang province, Cambodia.

METHODS

The study cohort included adult residents (≥18 years) of the health operational district of Moung Russei who were voluntarily screened at 13 local health centres. Serology testing was done by a rapid diagnostic test using SD Bioline HCV (SD Bioline HCV, Standard Diagnostics, South Korea) with capillary blood. HCV viral load testing was done by GeneXpert (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, CA, USA). Viraemic patients (HCV viral load ≥10 IU/mL) received pretreatment assessment by a general physician and minimal treatment evaluation tests at the health operational district referral hospital. Viraemic patients who did not have additional complications received all HCV care follow-up at the local health centres, provided by nursing staff, and patients who had decompensated cirrhosis, previously treated with a direct-acting antiviral, HBV co-infection, or other comorbidities requiring observation continued receiving care at the referral hospital with a general physician. Patients deemed eligible for treatment were prescribed oral sofosbuvir (400 mg) and daclatasvir (60 mg) once a day for 12 weeks, or 24 weeks for patients with decompensated cirrhosis or those previously treated with a direct-acting antiviral. HCV cure was defined as sustained virological response at 12 weeks after treatment (HCV viral load <10 IU/mL). Patients were assessed for serious and non-serious adverse events at any time between treatment initiation and 12 weeks post-treatment testing.

FINDINGS

Between March 12, 2018, and Jan 18, 2019, 10 425 residents (ie, 7·6% of the estimated 136 571 adults in the health operational district of Moung Russei) were screened. Of those patients screened, the median age was 44 years (IQR 31-55) and 778 (7·5%) were HCV-antibody positive. 761 (97·8%) of 778 antibody-positive patients received HCV viral load testing, and 540 (71·0%) of those tested were HCV viraemic. Among these 540 patients, linkage to treatment and follow-up care was high, with 533 (98·7%) attending a baseline consultation at the HCV clinic, of whom 530 (99·4%) initiated treatment. 485 (91·5%) of 530 patients who initiated treatment received follow-up at a health centre and 45 (8·5%) were followed up at the referral hospital. Of the 530 patients who initiated direct-acting antiviral therapy, 515 (97·2%) completed treatment. Subsequently, 466 (90·5%) of 515 patients completed follow-up, and 459 (98·5%) of 466 achieved a sustained virological response at 12 weeks after treatment. Two (0·4%) adverse events (fatigue [n=1] and stomach upset [n=1]) and five (0·9%) serious adverse events (infection [n=2], cardiovascular disease [n=1], and panic attack [n=1], with data missing for one of the causes of serious adverse events) were reported among patients who initiated treatment. All serious adverse events were deemed to be unrelated to therapy.

INTERPRETATION

This pilot project showed that a highly simplified, decentralised model of HCV care can be integrated within a rural public health system in a low-income or middle-income country, while maintaining high patient retention, treatment efficacy, and safety. The project delivered care via accessible, decentralised primary health centres, using non-specialist clinical staff, thereby enhancing the efficient use of limited resources and maximising the potential to test and treat individuals living with HCV infection.

FUNDING

Médecins Sans Frontières.

Reduced incidence of hepatitis C in 9 villages in rural Egypt: Progress towards national elimination goals

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Egypt has a major HCV burden and a well established treatment programme, with an ambitious goal of HCV elimination. Our aim was to assess the impact of a comprehensive HCV prevention, test and treat programme on the incidence of new HCV infections in 9 villages in rural Egypt.

METHODS

An HCV "educate, test and treat" project was implemented in 73 villages across 7 governorates in Egypt between 06/2015 and 06/2018. In 2018, in 9 of the villages we re-tested individuals who originally tested HCV antibody (HCV-Ab) and HBsAg negative using rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs); confirmatory HCV RNA testing was performed for positive cases. The incidence rate per 1,000 person-years (py) was calculated, and risk factors for incident HCV infections assessed through an interviewer-administered questionnaire in 1:3 age- and gender-matched cases and controls.

RESULTS

Out of 20,490 individuals who originally tested HCV-Ab negative in the 9 villages during the 2015-2016 implementation of the "educate, test and treat" programme, 19,816 (96.7%) were re-tested in 2018. Over a median of 2.4 years (IQR 2.1-2.7), there were 19 new HCV infections all of which were HCV RNA positive (incidence rate 0.37/1,000 py) (95% CI 0.24-0.59). Compared to a previous estimate of incidence in the Nile Delta region (2.4/1,000 py) from 2006, there was a substantial reduction in overall incidence of new HCV infections. Exposures through surgery (odds ratio 51; 95% CI 3.5-740.1) and dental procedures (odds ratio 23.8; 95% CI 2.9-194.9) were significant independent predictors of incident infections.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to show a substantial reduction in incidence of new HCV infections in a sample of the general population in Egypt following attainment of high testing and treatment coverage. New infections were significantly associated with healthcare-associated exposures.

LAY SUMMARY

Egypt has a major national HCV testing and treatment programme with the goal of eliminating HCV infection. We assessed the impact of a comprehensive HCV prevention, test and treat programme in 73 villages that achieved high coverage of testing and treatment on the subsequent incidence of new HCV infections in nine of the villages. We re-tested people who were previously HCV antibody negative and found that the rate of new HCV infections was greatly reduced compared to previous estimates. We also found that exposure through surgery and dental procedures were associated with these new infections. This highlights the importance of continued strengthening of infection control and prevention measures, alongside treatment scale-up.

GES: A validated simple score to predict the risk of HCC in patients with HCV-GT4-associated advanced liver fibrosis after oral antivirals

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) risk persists after hepatitis C virus (HCV) eradication with direct-acting antivirals (DAAs), particularly in patients with cirrhosis. Identifying those who are likely to develop HCC is a critical unmet medical need. Our aim is to develop a score that offers individualized patient HCC risk prediction.

METHODS

This two-centre prospective study included 4400 patients, with cirrhosis and advanced fibrosis who achieved a sustained virologic response (SVR), including 2372 patients (derivation cohort). HCC-associated factors were identified by multivariable Cox regression analysis to develop a scoring model for prediction of HCC risk; and subsequently internally and externally validated in two independent cohorts of 687 and 1341 patients.

RESULTS

In the derivation cohort, the median follow-up was 23.51 ± 8.21 months, during which 109 patients (4.7%) developed HCC. Age, sex, serum albumin, α fetoprotein and pretreatment fibrosis stage were identified as risk factors for HCC. A simple predictive model (GES) score was constructed. The 2-year cumulative HCC incidence using Kaplan-Meier method was 1.2%, 3.3% and 7.1% in the low-risk, medium-risk and high-risk groups respectively. Internal and external validation showed highly significant difference among the three risk groups (P < .001) with regard to cumulative HCC risk. GES score has high predictive ability value (Harrell's C statistic 0.801), that remained robustly consistent across two independent validation cohorts (Harrell's C statistic 0.812 and 0.816).

CONCLUSION

GES score is simple with validated good predictive ability for the development of HCC after eradication of HCV and may be useful for HCC risk stratification in those patients.

Reflex testing. A key tool for the elimination of hepatitis C

Hepatitis C is a major cause of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, as well as the primary indication for liver transplant in Europe. The highly effective direct-acting antivirals currently available make it possible to achieve the hepatitis C elimination targets set by the World Health Organization. For this, population screening and reflect testing are fundamental strategies.

Risk Factors Contributing to the Occurrence and Recurrence of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Hepatitis C Virus Patients Treated with Direct-Acting Antivirals

Although hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA may be eliminated from blood circulation by direct-acting antivirals (DAA) therapy as assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), HCV RNA can still be present in liver tissue, and this is known as occult HCV. There has been a lot of controversy surrounding the recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) after DAA treatment of hepatic cells infected with chronic HCV. One of the main risk factors that leads to de novo HCC is the chronicity of HCV in hepatic cells. There are many studies regarding the progression of HCV-infected hepatic cells to HCC. However, there is a lack of research on the different molecular mechanisms that lead to the progression of chronic HCV infection to HCC, as well as on the effect of HCV on the alteration of DNA ploidy, which eventually leads to a recurrence of HCC after DAA treatment. In this review article, we will address some risk factors that could lead to the development/recurrence of HCC after treatment of HCV with DAA therapy, such as the role of liver cirrhosis, the alteration of DNA ploidy, the reactivation of hepatitis B virus (HBV), the role of cytokines and the alteration of the immune system, concomitant non- alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity, alcohol consumption and also occult HCV infection/co-infection. Clinicians should be cautious considering that full eradication of hepatocarcinogenesis cannot be successfully accomplished by anti-HCV treatment alone.

Risk Factors Contributing to the Occurrence and Recurrence of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in Hepatitis C Virus Patients Treated with Direct-Acting Antivirals

Although hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA may be eliminated from blood circulation by direct-acting antivirals (DAA) therapy as assessed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), HCV RNA can still be present in liver tissue, and this is known as occult HCV. There has been a lot of controversy surrounding the recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) after DAA treatment of hepatic cells infected with chronic HCV. One of the main risk factors that leads to de novo HCC is the chronicity of HCV in hepatic cells. There are many studies regarding the progression of HCV-infected hepatic cells to HCC. However, there is a lack of research on the different molecular mechanisms that lead to the progression of chronic HCV infection to HCC, as well as on the effect of HCV on the alteration of DNA ploidy, which eventually leads to a recurrence of HCC after DAA treatment. In this review article, we will address some risk factors that could lead to the development/recurrence of HCC after treatment of HCV with DAA therapy, such as the role of liver cirrhosis, the alteration of DNA ploidy, the reactivation of hepatitis B virus (HBV), the role of cytokines and the alteration of the immune system, concomitant non- alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity, alcohol consumption and also occult HCV infection/co-infection. Clinicians should be cautious considering that full eradication of hepatocarcinogenesis cannot be successfully accomplished by anti-HCV treatment alone.

A same day 'test and treat' model for chronic HCV and HBV infection: Results from two community-based pilot studies in Egypt

Prompt access to confirmatory viral load testing and staging of liver disease are key barriers in uptake of treatment for chronic hepatitis B and C infection. Our objective was to establish the feasibility of a same day 'test and treat' model in two distinct community-based settings in Egypt through use of key point-of-care (POC) portable tools for HCV and HBV viral load assessment and staging of liver disease followed by treatment initiation. Community sites were a village in northern Egypt (site 1) and a government office in Cairo (site 2). The following model was adopted: community awareness raising in the week before project initiation; site assessment to ensure optimal placement and calibration of equipment and clinical care set-up; transfer of key portable laboratory instruments to the sites (four cartridge GeneXpert, FibroScan and abdominal ultrasound); screening using rapid diagnostic tests for HCV-Ab and HBsAg, with immediate venous or finger-stick blood sampling for HCV-RNA and HBV-DNA assay, FibroScan staging of liver disease and ultrasound screening for liver cancer. At site 1, 475 individuals were screened over a single day, 125 were positive for HCV-Ab and 4 for HBsAg, 43 of 56 new HCV diagnoses were HCV RNA positive, and 3 of 4 HBsAg positive were HBV DNA positive, 40 initiated HCV treatment, and one HBV treatment . At site 2, 3188 individuals were screened over 3 days, 157 were positive for HCV-Ab, and 27 for HBsAg; 38 of 76 new HCV diagnoses were HCV RNA positive, and 15 of 18 HBsAg positive were HBV-DNA positive. Across both sites, 78 patients were counselled and initiated on treatment for HCV and 12 for HBV within 3 and 4 hours, respectively, of initial positive rapid diagnostic test result. We have shown the feasibility of a same day 'test and treat' model for chronic HCV and HBV infection in two community-based settings in Egypt that achieved high levels of linkage to care and initial treatment.

Emerging from the screening of 57 million citizens and treating 4 million patients: future strategies to eliminate hepatitis C from Egypt

INTRODUCTION

Egypt succeeded in establishing a successful model of care for hepatitis C virus (HCV) management in the country with the highest worldwide disease prevalence. The Egyptian ministry of health announced an optimistic goal of near disease elimination. More steps are still required to achieve such a goal.

AREAS COVERED

This review covers the efforts made in treatment and prevention of HCV by the Egyptian National Committee for the Control of Viral Hepatitis (NCCVH) with emphasis on the extensive screening program that was able to screen more than 57 million citizens, and future strategies implemented to ensure eradicating the virus from the country.

EXPERT OPINION

Despite the great efforts and the proven success in controlling the HCV epidemic in Egypt, some facets of the Egyptian program still need to be upgraded to reach the HCV elimination goal. A significant workload with follow up programs for those who were successfully treated, and treatment failure cases are existing. More enhancement for the currently performed prevention and control measure is missing. Also, we strongly recommend conducting a recent nationwide survey to document the actual infection rates of HCV after all these efforts.