Liver fibrosis and CD206+ macrophage accumulation are suppressed by anti-GM-CSF therapy

Imprinted immune abnormalities in liver transplant patients cured of hepatitis C with antiviral drugs

Chronic HCV infection induces interferon and dysregulates immune responses through inflammation and chronic antigenic stimulation. Antiviral drugs can cure HCV, providing a unique opportunity to examine the immunological restoration that does and does not occur when a chronic viral infection is eradicated. We quantified blood cytokines levels and used mass cytometry to immunophenotype peripheral blood mononuclear cells before and after HCV cure in 2 groups of patients and controls. At baseline, serum interferon α and soluble CD163 (a macrophage product) were elevated in both liver transplant and nonliver transplant patients compared to controls; the frequencies of several peripheral blood mononuclear cell populations differed from controls; and programmed death protein 1-positivity was increased in nearly all T cell subsets. Many abnormalities persisted after HCV cure, including elevated programmed death protein 1 expression on CD4 naïve and central memory T cells, elevated soluble CD163, and expansion of the plasmablast/plasma cell compartment. Several myeloid-lineage subsets, including Ag-presenting dendritic cells, remained dysregulated. In mechanistic studies, interferon α treatment increased programmed death protein 1 on human T cells and increased T cell receptor signaling. The data identify immunological abnormalities that persist after curative HCV treatment. Before cure, high levels of interferon α may stimulate programmed death protein 1 expression on human T cells, causing persistent functional changes.

Macrophages promote the transition from myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury to cardiac fibrosis in mice through GMCSF/CCL2/CCR2 and phenotype switching

Following acute myocardial ischemia reperfusion (MIR), macrophages infiltrate damaged cardiac tissue and alter their polarization phenotype to respond to acute inflammation and chronic fibrotic remodeling. In this study we investigated the role of macrophages in post-ischemic myocardial fibrosis and explored therapeutic targets for myocardial fibrosis. Male mice were subjected to ligation of the left coronary artery for 30 min. We first detected the levels of chemokines in heart tissue that recruited immune cells infiltrating into the heart, and found that granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GMCSF) released by mouse cardiac microvascular endothelial cells (MCMECs) peaked at 6 h after reperfusion, and c-c motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) released by GMCSF-induced macrophages peaked at 24 h after reperfusion. In co-culture of BMDMs with MCMECs, we demonstrated that GMCSF derived from MCMECs stimulated the release of CCL2 by BMDMs and effectively promoted the migration of BMDMs. We also confirmed that GMCSF promoted M1 polarization of macrophages in vitro, while GMCSF neutralizing antibodies (NTABs) blocked CCL2/CCR2 signaling. In MIR mouse heart, we showed that GMCSF activated CCL2/CCR2 signaling to promote NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-1β-mediated and amplified inflammatory damage. Knockdown of CC chemokine receptor 2 gene (CCR2-/-), or administration of specific CCR2 inhibitor RS102895 (5 mg/kg per 12 h, i.p., one day before MIR and continuously until the end of the experiment) effectively reduced the area of myocardial infarction, and down-regulated inflammatory mediators and NLRP3/Caspase-1/IL-1β signaling. Mass cytometry confirmed that M2 macrophages played an important role during fibrosis, while macrophage-depleted mice exhibited significantly reduced transforming growth factor-β (Tgf-β) levels in heart tissue after MIR. In co-culture of macrophages with fibroblasts, treatment with recombinant mouse CCL2 stimulated macrophages to release a large amount of Tgf-β, and promoted the release of Col1α1 by fibroblasts. This effect was diminished in BMDMs from CCR2-/- mice. After knocking out or inhibiting CCR2-gene, the levels of Tgf-β were significantly reduced, as was the level of myocardial fibrosis, and cardiac function was protected. This study confirms that the acute injury to chronic fibrosis transition after MIR in mice is mediated by GMCSF/CCL2/CCR2 signaling in macrophages through NLRP3 inflammatory cascade and the phenotype switching.

From hepatitis B virus infection to acute-on-chronic liver failure: The dynamic role of hepatic macrophages

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a progressive disease that is associated with rapid worsening of clinical symptoms and high mortality. A multicentre prospective study from China demonstrated that patients with hepatitis B virus-related ACLF (HBV-ACLF) exhibited worse clinical characteristics and higher mortality rates compared to non-HBV-ACLF patients. Immune dysregulation is closely linked to the potential mechanisms of initiation and progression of ACLF. Innate immune response, which is represented by monocytes/macrophages, is up-regulated across ACLF development. This suggests that monocytes/macrophages play an essential role in maintaining the immune homeostasis of ACLF. Information that has been published in recent years shows that the immune status and function of monocytes/macrophages vary in ACLF precipitated by different chronic liver diseases. Monocytes/macrophages have an immune activation effect in hepatitis B-precipitated-ACLF, but they exhibit an immune suppression in cirrhosis-precipitated-ACLF. Therefore, this review aims to explain whether this difference affects the clinical outcome in HBV-ACLF patients as well as the mechanisms involved. We summarize the novel findings that highlight the dynamic polarization phenotype and functional status of hepatic macrophages from the stage of HBV infection to ACLF development. Moreover, we discuss how different HBV-related liver disease tissue microenvironments affect the phenotype and function of hepatic macrophages. In summary, increasing developments in understanding the differences in immune phenotype and functional status of hepatic macrophages in ACLF patients will provide new perspectives towards the effective restoration of ACLF immune homeostasis.

Intestinal stroma guides monocyte differentiation to macrophages through GM-CSF

Stromal cells support epithelial cell and immune cell homeostasis and play an important role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) pathogenesis. Here, we quantify the stromal response to inflammation in pediatric IBD and reveal subset-specific inflammatory responses across colon segments and intestinal layers. Using data from a murine dynamic gut injury model and human ex vivo transcriptomic, protein and spatial analyses, we report that PDGFRA+CD142-/low fibroblasts and monocytes/macrophages co-localize in the intestine. In primary human fibroblast-monocyte co-cultures, intestinal PDGFRA+CD142-/low fibroblasts foster monocyte transition to CCR2+CD206+ macrophages through granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). Monocyte-derived CCR2+CD206+ cells from co-cultures have a phenotype similar to intestinal CCR2+CD206+ macrophages from newly diagnosed pediatric IBD patients, with high levels of PD-L1 and low levels of GM-CSF receptor. The study describes subset-specific changes in stromal responses to inflammation and suggests that the intestinal stroma guides intestinal macrophage differentiation.

Distinct fibroblast functions associated with fibrotic and immune-mediated inflammatory diseases and their implications for therapeutic development

Fibroblasts are ubiquitous cells that can adopt many functional states. As tissue-resident sentinels, they respond to acute damage signals and shape the earliest events in fibrotic and immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Upon sensing an insult, fibroblasts produce chemokines and growth factors to organize and support the response. Depending on the size and composition of the resulting infiltrate, these activated fibroblasts may also begin to contract or relax thus changing local stiffness within the tissue. These early events likely contribute to the divergent clinical manifestations of fibrotic and immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Further, distinct changes to the cellular composition and signaling dialogue in these diseases drive progressive fibroblasts specialization. In fibrotic diseases, fibroblasts support the survival, activation and differentiation of myeloid cells, granulocytes and innate lymphocytes, and produce most of the pathogenic extracellular matrix proteins. Whereas, in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases, sequential accumulation of dendritic cells, T cells and B cells programs fibroblasts to support local, destructive adaptive immune responses. Fibroblast specialization has clear implications for the development of effective induction and maintenance therapies for patients with these clinically distinct diseases.

Immune Features of Disparate Liver Transplant Outcomes in Female Hispanics With Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis

Background

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a severe immune-mediated stage of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease that is rapidly becoming the most common etiology requiring liver transplantation (LT), with Hispanics bearing a disproportionate burden. This study aimed to uncover the underlying immune mechanisms of the disparities experienced by Hispanic patients undergoing LT for NASH.

Methods

We enrolled 164 LT recipients in our institutional review board-approved study, 33 of whom presented with NASH as the primary etiology of LT (20%), with 16 self-reported as Hispanic (48%). We investigated the histopathology of prereperfusion and postreperfusion biopsies, clinical liver function tests, longitudinal soluble cytokines via 38-plex Luminex, and immune cell phenotypes generated by prereperfusion and postreperfusion blood using 14-color flow cytometry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Results

Hispanic LT recipients transplanted for NASH were disproportionately female (81%) and disproportionately suffered poor outcomes in the first year posttransplant, including rejection (26%) and death (38%). Clinically, we observed increased pro-inflammatory and apoptotic histopathological features in biopsies, increased AST/international normalized ratio early posttransplantation, and a higher incidence of presensitization to mismatched HLA antigens expressed by the donor allograft. Experimental investigations revealed that blood from female Hispanic NASH patients showed significantly increased levels of leukocyte-attracting chemokines, innate-to-adaptive switching cytokines and growth factors, HMGB1 release, and TLR4/TLR8/TLR9/NOD1 activation, and produced a pro-inflammatory, pro-apoptotic macrophage phenotype with reduced CD14/CD68/CD66a/TIM-3 and increased CD16/CD11b/HLA-DR/CD80.

Conclusions

A personalized approach to reducing immunological risk factors is urgently needed for this endotype in Hispanics with NASH requiring LT, particularly in females.

Revisiting regulatory T cells as modulators of innate immune response and inflammatory diseases

Regulatory T cells (Treg) are known to be critical for the maintenance of immune homeostasis by suppressing the activation of auto- or allo-reactive effector T cells through a diverse repertoire of molecular mechanisms. Accordingly, therapeutic strategies aimed at enhancing Treg numbers or potency in the setting of autoimmunity and allogeneic transplants have been energetically pursued and are beginning to yield some encouraging outcomes in early phase clinical trials. Less well recognized from a translational perspective, however, has been the mounting body of evidence that Treg directly modulate most aspects of innate immune response under a range of different acute and chronic disease conditions. Recognizing this aspect of Treg immune modulatory function provides a bridge for the application of Treg-based therapies to common medical conditions in which organ and tissue damage is mediated primarily by inflammation involving myeloid cells (mononuclear phagocytes, granulocytes) and innate lymphocytes (NK cells, NKT cells, γδ T cells and ILCs). In this review, we comprehensively summarize pre-clinical and human research that has revealed diverse modulatory effects of Treg and specific Treg subpopulations on the range of innate immune cell types. In each case, we emphasize the key mechanistic insights and the evidence that Treg interactions with innate immune effectors can have significant impacts on disease severity or treatment. Finally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges that exist for the application of Treg-based therapeutic interventions to three globally impactful, inflammatory conditions: type 2 diabetes and its end-organ complications, ischemia reperfusion injury and atherosclerosis.

Macrophage-Myofibroblast Transition Contributes to Myofibroblast Formation in Proliferative Vitreoretinal Disorders

Inflammation and fibrosis are key features of proliferative vitreoretinal disorders. We aimed to define the macrophage phenotype and investigate the role of macrophage-myofibroblast transition (MMT) in the contribution to myofibroblast populations present in epiretinal membranes. Vitreous samples from proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) and nondiabetic control patients, epiretinal fibrovascular membranes from PDR patients and fibrocellular membranes from PVR patients, human retinal Müller glial cells and human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs) were studied by ELISA, immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry analysis. Myofibroblasts expressing α-SMA, fibroblast activation protein-α (FAP-α) and fibroblast-specific protein-1 (FSP-1) were present in all membranes. The majority of CD68+ monocytes/macrophages co-expressed the M2 macrophage marker CD206. In epiretinal membranes, cells undergoing MMT were identified by co-expression of the macrophage marker CD68 and myofibroblast markers α-SMA and FSP-1. Further analysis revealed that CD206+ M2 macrophages co-expressed α-SMA, FSP-1, FAP-α and ß-catenin. Soluble (s) CD206 and sFAP-α levels were significantly higher in vitreous samples from PDR and PVR patients than in nondiabetic control patients. The proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α and the hypoxia mimetic agent cobalt chloride induced upregulation of sFAP-α in culture media of Müller cells but not of HRMECs. The NF-ĸß inhibitor BAY11-7085 significantly attenuated TNF-α-induced upregulation of sFAP-α in Müller cells. Our findings suggest that the process of MMT might contribute to myofibroblast formation in epiretinal membranes, and this transition involved macrophages with a predominant M2 phenotype. In addition, sFAP-α as a vitreous biomarker may be derived from M2 macrophages transitioned to myofibroblasts and from Müller cells.

Does High-Intensity Exercise Cause Acute Liver Injury in Patients with Fontan Circulation? A Prospective Pilot Study

The Fontan procedure results in chronic hepatic congestion and Fontan-associated liver disease (FALD) characterized by progressive liver fibrosis and cirrhosis. Exercise is recommended in this population, but may accelerate the progression of FALD from abrupt elevations in central venous pressure. The aim of this study was to assess if acute liver injury occurs after high-intensity exercise in patients with Fontan physiology. Ten patients were enrolled. Nine had normal systolic ventricular function and one had an ejection fraction < 40%. During cardiopulmonary exercise testing, patients had near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to measure oxygen saturation of multiple organs, including the liver, and underwent pre- and post-exercise testing with liver elastography, laboratory markers, and cytokines to assess liver injury. The hepatic and renal NIRS showed a statistically significant decrease in oxygenation during exercise, and the hepatic NIRS had the slowest recovery compared to renal, cerebral, and peripheral muscle NIRS. A clinically significant increase in shear wave velocity occurred after exercise testing only in the one patient with systolic dysfunction. There was a statistically significant, albeit trivial, increase in ALT and GGT after exercise. Fibrogenic cytokines traditionally associated with FALD did not increase significantly in our cohort; however, pro-inflammatory cytokines that predispose to fibrogenesis did significantly rise during exercise. Although patients with Fontan circulation demonstrated a significant reduction in hepatic tissue oxygenation based on NIRS saturations during exercise, there was no clinical evidence of acute increase in liver congestion or acute liver injury following high-intensity exercise.

Sulfation at Glycopolymer Side Chains Switches Activity at the Macrophage Mannose Receptor (CD206) In Vitro and In Vivo

The mannose receptor (CD206) is an endocytic receptor expressed by selected innate immune cells and nonvascular endothelium, which plays a critical role in both homeostasis and pathogen recognition. Although its involvement in the development of several diseases and viral infections is well established, molecular tools able to both provide insight on the chemistry of CD206-ligand interactions and, importantly, effectively modulate its activity are currently lacking. Using novel SO4-3-Gal-glycopolymers targeting its cysteine-rich lectin ectodomain, this study uncovers and elucidates a previously unknown mechanism of CD206 blockade involving the formation of stable intracellular SO4-3-Gal-glycopolymer-CD206 complexes that prevents receptor recycling to the cell membrane. Further, we show that SO4-3-Gal glycopolymers inhibit CD206 both in vitro and in vivo, revealing hitherto unknown receptor function and demonstrating their potential as CD206 modulators within future immunotherapies.

DNASE1L3 regulation by transcription factor FOXP2 affects the proliferation, migration, invasion and tube formation of lung adenocarcinoma

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is prone to bone metastasis, resulting in poor prognosis. The present study aimed to detect the expression of deoxyribonuclease 1-like 3 (DNASE1L3) and forkhead-box P2 (FOXP2) in LUAD cells to investigate the role of DNASE1L3 in the regulation of proliferation, migration, invasion and tube formation of LUAD cells and how FOXP2 affects DNASE1L3 expression. The expression of DNASE1L3 and FOXP2 in LUAD cells was analyzed by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blotting. The transfection efficiency of DNASE1L3 overexpression plasmids, FOXP2 overexpression or interference plasmids into A549 cells was also confirmed by RT-qPCR and western blotting. The viability, proliferation, migration and invasion and tube formation of LUAD cells following transfection was in turn detected by MTT, EdU staining, wound healing, Transwell and tube formation assay. The expression of proteins associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transformation and tube formation was detected by western blotting. Binding between DNASE1L3 and FOXP2 was confirmed by dual-luciferase reporter assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation. Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis database predicted that underexpression of DNASE1L3 in LUAD was associated with poor prognosis. DNASE1L3 expression was decreased in LUAD cells and overexpression of DNASE1L3 inhibited the proliferation, migration, invasion and tube formation of LUAD cells. Transcription factor FOXP2 positively regulated DNASE1L3 transcription in LUAD cells. FOXP2 was also underexpressed in LUAD cells and downregulation of FOXP2 promoted proliferation, migration, invasion and tube formation of LUAD cells, which was reversed by overexpression of DNASE1L3. In conclusion, DNASE1L3 was positively regulated by transcription factor FOXP2 and overexpression inhibited proliferation, migration, invasion and tube formation of LUAD cells.

Resident macrophage subpopulations occupy distinct microenvironments in the kidney

The kidney contains a population of resident macrophages from birth that expands as it grows and forms a contiguous network throughout the tissue. Kidney-resident macrophages (KRMs) are important in homeostasis and the response to acute kidney injury. While the kidney contains many microenvironments, it is unknown whether KRMs are a heterogeneous population differentiated by function and location. We combined single-cell RNA-Seq (scRNA-Seq), spatial transcriptomics, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence imaging to localize, characterize, and validate KRM populations during quiescence and following 19 minutes of bilateral ischemic kidney injury. scRNA-Seq and spatial transcriptomics revealed 7 distinct KRM subpopulations, which are organized into zones corresponding to regions of the nephron. Each subpopulation was identifiable by a unique transcriptomic signature, suggesting distinct functions. Specific protein markers were identified for 2 clusters, allowing analysis by flow cytometry or immunofluorescence imaging. Following injury, the original localization of each subpopulation was lost, either from changing locations or transcriptomic signatures. The original spatial distribution of KRMs was not fully restored for at least 28 days after injury. The change in KRM localization confirmed a long-hypothesized dysregulation of the local immune system following acute injury and may explain the increased risk for chronic kidney disease.

Correlation of Serum M-CSF, CER, and TIMP-1 Levels with Liver Fibrosis in Viral Hepatitis

Objective

This research is aimed at investigating the relationship between liver fibrosis in viral hepatitis and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase (TIMP-1), and ceruloplasmin (CER) in serum level.

Methods

Patients were randomly selected among those admitted to our hospital, and 60 healthy volunteers were chosen to serve as control participants. The levels of serum M-CSF, CER, and TIMP-1 were compared. According to the severity of their liver fibrosis, patients with CHB were separated into four groups: S1, S2, S3, and S4. Serum levels of M-CSF, CER, and TIMP-1 were correlated with liver fibrosis and hepatitis markers, and the diagnostic usefulness of the three indices was assessed with liver cirrhosis patients.

Results

Increases in M-CSF and TIMP-1 in the CHB group but decreases in CER were statistically significant (P < 0.05). Serum levels of M-CSF, CER, TIMP-1, HA, PC-III, C-IV, and LN differed significantly across the four study groups (P < 0.05). Over time, as liver fibrosis worsened, we observed a progressive uptick in M-CSF, TIMP-1, LN, HA, C-IV, and PC-III levels and a progressive downtick in CER levels, with significant (P < 0.05) differences between the groups. There was a significant positive correlation between liver fibrosis and serum M-CSF, PC-III, TIMP-1, HA, LN, and C-IV levels in the CHB group (P < 0.05) and a significant negative correlation between serum CER and these same factors (P < 0.05). The AUC of 0.956 for diagnosing the S4 stage was greater than that of 0.857, 0.851, and 0.817 for M-CSF, CER, and TIMP-1, respectively.

Conclusions

In CHB patients, the liver fibrosis degree is associated with the M-CSF, CER, and TIMP-1 levels, and the combined clinical detection of these three markers has better diagnostic significance.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) shows therapeutic effect on dimethylnitrosamine (DMN)-induced liver fibrosis in rats

This study was undertaken to investigate the inhibitory effects of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) on dimethylnitrosamine (DMN)-induced liver fibrosis in rats. Liver fibrosis was induced in Sprague-Dawley rats by injecting DMN intraperitoneally (at 10 mg/kg of body weight) daily for three consecutive days per week for 4 weeks. To investigate the effect of GM-CSF on disease onset, GM-CSF (50 μg/kg of body weight) was co-treated with DMN for 2 consecutive days per week for 4 weeks (4-week groups). To observe the effect of GM-CSF on the progression of liver fibrosis, GM-CSF was post-treated alone at 5–8 weeks after the 4 weeks of DMN injection (8-week groups). We found that DMN administration for 4 weeks produced molecular and pathological manifestations of liver fibrosis, that is, it increased the expressions of collagen type I, alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and decreased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) expression. In addition, elevated serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bilirubin level (TBIL), and decreased albumin level (ALB) were observed. In both the 4-week and 8-week groups, GM-CSF clearly improved the pathological liver conditions in the gross and histological observations, and significantly recovered DMN-induced increases in AST and TBIL and decreases in ALB serum levels to normal. GM-CSF also significantly decreased DMN-induced increases in collagen type I, α-SMA, and TGF-β1 and increased DMN-induced decreases in PPAR-γ expression. In the DMN groups, survival decreased continuously for 8 weeks after DMN treatment for the first 4 weeks. GM-CSF showed a survival benefit when co-treated for the first 4 weeks but a marginal effect when post-treated for 5–8 weeks. In conclusion, co-treatment of GM-CSF showed therapeutic effects on DMN-induced liver fibrosis and survival rates in rats, while post-treatment efficiently blocked liver fibrosis.

Development of RAG2-/-IL2Rγ-/Y immune deficient FAH-knockout miniature pig

Human hepatocyte transplantation for liver disease treatment have been hampered by the lack of quality human hepatocytes. Pigs with their large body size, longevity and physiological similarities with human are appropriate animal models for the in vivo expansion of human hepatocytes. Here we report on the generation of RAG2^-/-IL2Rγ^-/YFAH^-/- (RGFKO) pigs via CRISPR/Cas9 system and somatic cell nuclear transfer. We showed that thymic and splenic development in RGFKO pigs was impaired. V(D)J recombination processes were also inactivated. Consequently, RGFKO pigs had significantly reduced numbers of porcine T, B and NK cells. Moreover, due to the loss of FAH, porcine hepatocytes continuously undergo apoptosis and consequently suffer hepatic damage. Thus, RGFKO pigs are both immune deficient and constantly suffer liver injury in the absence of NTBC supplementation. These results suggest that RGFKO pigs have the potential to be engrafted with human hepatocytes without immune rejection, thereby allowing for large scale expansion of human hepatocytes.

Prognostic role of myeloid-derived tumor-associated macrophages at the tumor invasive margin in gastric cancer with liver metastasis (GCLM): a single-center retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Liver metastasis is one of the important factors leading to poor prognosis of gastric cancer. According to the classic "seed soil theory", it is speculated that the liver microenvironment at the invasion margin of gastric cancer liver metastases (GCLM) may have a crucial impact on tumor progression. However, few studies had stated the correlation between the patients' prognosis and the densities of stromal cells infiltrating into the invasive margin, where our retrospective study designed to identify the role of infiltrating macrophages on the prognosis of GCLM as a reliable supplement of predictive tumor markers.

METHODS

The material consisted of a group of 72 gastric cancer (GC) patients with liver metastasis diagnosed from February 2015 and December 2020. The CD68+, CD206+, and Clec4f+ macrophages in their specimens were counted by immunohistochemistry (IHC), and the analysis area was the invasive margin of metastatic lesions. Clinical data were collected retrospectively. Overall survival (OS) was calculated from the date of initial diagnosis to the date of last follow-up or death. Survival analyses were performed using the Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test. Multivariate Cox regression was performed to asses impact of macrophages on OS.

RESULTS

The expression of CD206 could indicate the prognosis of patients with GCLM, and patients with high expression of CD206 had worse prognoses (P=0.0002). Univariate and multivariate analyses showed that CD206 was an independent risk factor for prognosis (HR 5.276, 95% CI: 1.730-16.089, P=0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

The CD206+ myeloid-derived tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) may predict whether patients could benefit from R1 resection of liver-metastatic lesions, which has important theoretical significance and practical value for accurately evaluating the clinical prognosis of patients with GCLM and guiding clinical treatment.

Investigation of the Effect of Curcumin on Protein Targets in NAFLD Using Bioinformatic Analysis

BACKGROUND: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a prevalent metabolic disorder. Defects in function/expression of genes/proteins are critical in initiation/progression of NAFLD. Natural products may modulate these genes/proteins. Curcumin improves steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis progression. Here, bioinformatic tools, gene−drug and gene-disease databases were utilized to explore targets, interactions, and pathways through which curcumin could impact NAFLD. METHODS: Significant curcumin−protein interaction was identified (high-confidence:0.7) in the STITCH database. Identified proteins were investigated to determine association with NAFLD. gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were analyzed for significantly involved targets (p < 0.01). Specificity of obtained targets with NAFLD was estimated and investigated in Tissue/Cells−gene associations (PanglaoDB Augmented 2021, Mouse Gene Atlas) and Disease−gene association-based EnrichR algorithms (Jensen DISEASES, DisGeNET). RESULTS: Two collections were constructed: 227 protein−curcumin interactions and 95 NAFLD-associated genes. By Venn diagram, 14 significant targets were identified, and their biological pathways evaluated. Based on gene ontology, most targets involved stress and lipid metabolism. KEGG revealed chemical carcinogenesis, the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications and NAFLD as the most common significant pathways. Specificity to diseases database (EnrichR algorithm) revealed specificity for steatosis/steatohepatitis. CONCLUSION: Curcumin may improve, or inhibit, progression of NAFLD through activation/inhibition of NAFLD-related genes.

How to Build an Image-Processing Pipeline for Automating Multiparameter Histocytometry Analysis

Until relatively recently, analysis of imaging data has been primarily quantitative and limited to 3-4 markers. The advancement of various technologies overcoming this marker limitation provided the capability of analyzing multiparameter imaging data down to the single cell level, termed histocytometry. Currently, most published end-to-end histocytometric analysis of imaging data is performed using expensive commercial programs or freely available analysis packages that require significant knowledge of programming languages for execution. Here we present a protocol that performs cell segmentation, phenotyping and spatial analysis, using software with easy-to-use GUIs (graphical user interfaces). These protocols allow the user to derive spatial and phenotypical data for the analysis of multiparameter microscopic images from most imaging platforms in a low-cost manner. © 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Cell Segmentation and generation of histocytometric .csv file Basic Protocol 2: Phenotyping of cell populations Basic Protocol 3: Spatial relationship analyses of phenotyped populations Support Protocol 1: Nuclei Segmentation Accuracy Test Support Protocol 2: Correcting y-axis Inversion of Histocytometry Data Relative to Original Image File.

Potential Applications and Perspectives of Humanized Mouse Models

As medical and pharmacological technology advances, new and complex modalities of disease treatment that are more personalized and targeted are being developed. Often these modalities must be validated in the presence of critical components of the human biological system. Given the incongruencies between murine and human biology, as well as the human-tropism of certain drugs and pathogens, the selection of animal models that accurately recapitulate the intricacies of the human biological system becomes more salient for disease modeling and preclinical testing. Immunodeficient mice engrafted with functional human tissues (so-called humanized mice), which allow for the study of physiologically relevant disease mechanisms, have thus become an integral aspect of biomedical research. This review discusses the recent advancements and applications of humanized mouse models on human immune system and liver humanization in modeling human diseases, as well as how they can facilitate translational medicine.

Role of Circulating Hematopoietic Fibrocytes in Chronic Hepatitis C Patients Induced Liver Fibrosis

Background: Bone marrow derived fibrocytes may play an important role in pathogenesis and resolution of liver fibrosis. These cells may offer new approaches for better understanding the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis. Aim of the work: To define the proportion of circulating fibrocytes with hematopoietic progenitor origin as defined by CD45 and CD34 positivity and to assess whether they are increased in patients with chronic C hepatitis in correlation to the degree of liver fibrosis. Subjects and Methods: Sixty HCV patients were classified according to METAVIR score into 4 stages of liver fibrosis, 15 age and sex-matched controls were included. Flowcytometric analysis for circulating levels of fibrocytes CD34+ve cells, CD45+ve cells, collagen type I+ve cells and CXCR4+ve cells was carried out using monoclonal antibodies (anti-CD34, CD45, collagen type I and CD184). GM-CSF, TGF-β and α-SMA were assessed using ELISA. Results and Conclusions: A significant increase in the circulating levels of GM-CSF, TGF- β and α-SMA, with a significant increase in the percentage of cells express CXCR4and in the co expression of CD34, CD45 and collagen type I positive cells in different groups of patients compared to control group, denoting the presence of an increased proportion of circulating fibrocytes in peripheral blood of these patients. The percentage of fibrocytes that positively expression CD34, CD45, collagen type I and CXCR4, were increased in step wise fashion in conjunction with worsening severity of liver disease. Liver fibrosis is associated with increased levels of circulating TGF-β1 and lipopolysaccharide, activation of myofibroblasts, and extensive deposition of extracellular matrix, mostly collagen Type I. TGF-β and LPS play a critical role in fibrogenesis and trigger fibrocyte recruitment to the injured liver promoting their differentiation into collagen type I producing myofibroblast, supporting that fibrocytes may become a novel target for anti fibrotic therapy.

Mitigation of portal fibrosis and cholestatic liver disease in ANKS6-deficient livers by macrophage depletion

Congenital hepatic fibrosis (CHF) is a developmental liver disease that is caused by mutations in genes that encode ciliary proteins and is characterized by bile duct dysplasia and portal fibrosis. Recent work has demonstrated that mutations in ANKS6 can cause CHF due to its role in bile duct development. Here, we report a novel ANKS6 mutation, which was identified in an infant presenting with neonatal jaundice due to underlying biliary abnormalities and liver fibrosis. Molecular analysis revealed that ANKS6 liver pathology is associated with the infiltration of inflammatory macrophages to the periportal fibrotic tissue and ductal epithelium. To further investigate the role of macrophages in CHF pathophysiology, we generated a novel liver-specific Anks6 knockout mouse model. The mutant mice develop biliary abnormalities and rapidly progressing periportal fibrosis reminiscent of human CHF. The development of portal fibrosis in Anks6 KO mice coincided with the accumulation of inflammatory monocytes and macrophages in the mutant liver. Gene expression and flow cytometric analysis demonstrated the preponderance of M1- over M2-like macrophages at the onset of fibrosis. A critical role for macrophages in promoting peribiliary fibrosis was demonstrated by depleting the macrophages with clodronate liposomes which effectively reduced inflammatory gene expression and fibrosis, and ameliorated tissue histology and biliary function in Anks6 KO livers. Together, this study demonstrates that macrophages play an important role in the initiation of liver fibrosis in ANKS6-deficient livers and their therapeutic elimination may provide an avenue to mitigate CHF in patients.

Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Pathogenesis, Prognosis and Therapy

Simple Summary

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) constitutes a major health burden, accounting for >80% of primary liver cancers globally. Inflammation has come into the spotlight as a hallmark of cancer, and it is evident that tumor-associated inflammation drives the involvement of monocytes in tumor growth and metastasis. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) actively participate in tumor-related inflammation, representing the main type of inflammatory cells in the tumor microenvironment, setting the crosstalk between tumor and stromal cells. Infiltrating TAMs exert either anti-tumorigenic (M1) or pro-tumorigenic (M2) functions. In most solid human tumors, increased TAM infiltration has been associated with enhanced tumor growth and metastasis, while other studies showcase that under certain conditions, TAMs exhibit cytotoxic and tumoricidal activity, inhibiting the progression of cancer. In this review, we summarize the current evidence on the role of macrophages in the pathogenesis and progression of HCC and we highlight their potential utilization in HCC prognosis and therapy.

Abstract

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) constitutes a major health burden globally, and it is caused by intrinsic genetic mutations acting in concert with a multitude of epigenetic and extrinsic risk factors. Cancer induces myelopoiesis in the bone marrow, as well as the mobilization of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, which reside in the spleen. Monocytes produced in the bone marrow and the spleen further infiltrate tumors, where they differentiate into tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). The relationship between chronic inflammation and hepatocarcinogenesis has been thoroughly investigated over the past decade; however, several aspects of the role of TAMs in HCC development are yet to be determined. In response to certain stimuli and signaling, monocytes differentiate into macrophages with antitumor properties, which are classified as M1-like. On the other hand, under different stimuli and signaling, the polarization of macrophages shifts towards an M2-like phenotype with a tumor promoting capacity. M2-like macrophages drive tumor growth both directly and indirectly, via the suppression of cytotoxic cell populations, including CD8+ T cells and NK cells. The tumor microenvironment affects the response to immunotherapies. Therefore, an enhanced understanding of its immunobiology is essential for the development of next-generation immunotherapies. The utilization of various monocyte-centered anticancer treatment modalities has been under clinical investigation, selectively targeting and modulating the processes of monocyte recruitment, activation and migration. This review summarizes the current evidence on the role of TAMs in HCC pathogenesis and progression, as well as in their potential involvement in tumor therapy, shedding light on emerging anticancer treatment methods targeting monocytes.

Immunological alterations after immunotherapy with short lived HBV-TCR T cells associates with long-term treatment response in HBV-HCC

The application of hepatitis B virus (HBV)–T‐cell receptor (TCR) T‐cell immunotherapy in patients with HBV‐related hepatocellular carcinoma (HBV‐HCC) has been apathetic, as the expression of HBV antigens by both normal HBV‐infected hepatocytes and HCC cells with HBV‐DNA integration increases the risk of on‐target off‐tumor severe liver inflammatory events. To increase the safety of this immunotherapeutic approach, we developed messenger RNA (mRNA) HBV‐TCR‐redirected T cells that—due to the transient nature of mRNA—are functionally short lived and can be infused in escalating doses. The safety of this approach and its clinical potential against primary HBV‐HCC have never been analyzed in human trials; thus, we studied the clinical and immunological parameters of 8 patients with chronic HBV infection and diffuse nonoperable HBV‐HCC treated at weekly intervals with escalating doses (1 × 10⁴, 1 × 10⁵, 1 × 10⁶, and 5 × 10⁶ TCR+ T cells/kg body weight) of T cells modified with HBV‐TCR encoding mRNA. The treatment was well tolerated with no severe systemic inflammatory events, cytokine storm, or neurotoxicity observed in any of these patients throughout treatment. Instead, we observed a destruction of the tumor lesion or a prolonged stable disease in 3 of 8 patients. Importantly, the patients without clinically relevant reductions of HCC did not display any detectable peripheral blood immunological alterations. In contrast, signs of transient localized liver inflammation, activation of the T‐cell compartment, and/or elevations of serum chemokine (C‐X‐C motif) ligand (CXCL) 9 and CXCL10 levels were detected in patients with long‐term clinical benefit. Conclusion: We show that despite the reduced in vivo half‐life (3‐4 days), adoptive transfer of mRNA HBV‐TCR T cells into patients with HBV‐HCC show long‐term clinical benefit that was associated with transient immunological alterations.

Functions of two distinct Kupffer cells in the liver

Tissue-resident macrophages play critically important roles in host homeostasis and pathogenesis of diseases, with the functions of phagocytosis, metabolism, and immune modulation. Recently, two research studies accomplished by a collaborated group of researchers showed that there are two populations of liver resident Kupffer cells (KCs), including a major cluster of differentiation 206 low expression (CD206low)endothelial cell-selective adhesion molecule negative (ESAM-) population (KC1) and a minor CD206highESAM+ population (KC2). Both KC1 and KC2 express KC markers, such as C-type lectin domain family 4 member F (CLEC4F) and T-cell membrane protein 4 (Tim4). In fatty liver, the frequency of KC2 was increased, and those KC2 expressed some markers like liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs), such as CD31 and ESAM. In addition, KC2 population had a relatively higher expression of CD36, as fatty acid transporter, which was implicated in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, this collaborated group also showed that KC2 can cross-present hepatocellular antigens to prime antiviral function of CD8+ T cells by sensing interleukin-2 (IL-2) in hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication-competent transgenic mice. Increasing evidence shows that targeting hepatic macrophages can prevent and reverse non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), with a new suggested name metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) to include metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver diseases, such as viruses and alcohol. In summary, differentiating specific populations of hepatic macrophages is critically important for the treatment of MAFLD or NAFLD, and their overlaps. Markers specifically expressed on sub-types of hepatic macrophages may be applied for liver disease diagnosis.

Targeting GM-CSF in inflammatory and autoimmune disorders

Granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) was originally identified as a growth factor for its ability to promote the proliferation and differentiation in vitro of bone marrow progenitor cells into granulocytes and macrophages. Many preclinical studies, using GM-CSF deletion or depletion approaches, have demonstrated that GM-CSF has a wide range of biological functions, including the mediation of inflammation and pain, indicating that it can be a potential target in many inflammatory and autoimmune conditions. This review provides a brief overview of GM-CSF biology and signaling, and summarizes the findings from preclinical models of a range of inflammatory and autoimmune disorders and the latest clinical trials targeting GM-CSF or its receptor in these disorders.

M2 macrophage accumulation contributes to pulmonary fibrosis, vascular dilatation, and hypoxemia in rat hepatopulmonary syndrome

Hepatopulmonary syndrome (HPS) markedly increases the mortality of patients. However, its pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. Rat HPS develops in common bile duct ligation (CBDL)-induced, but not thioacetamide (TAA)-induced cirrhosis. We investigated the mechanisms of HPS by comparing these two models. Pulmonary histology, blood gas exchange, and the related signals regulating macrophage accumulation were assessed in CBDL and TAA rats. Anti-polymorphonuclear leukocyte (antiPMN) and anti-granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (antiGM-CSF) antibodies, clodronate liposomes (CL), and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1) inhibitor (bindarit) were administrated in CBDL rats, GM-CSF, and MCP1 were administrated in bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). Pulmonary inflammatory cell recruitment, vascular dilatation, and hypoxemia were progressively developed by 1 week after CBDL, but only occurred at 4 week after TAA. Neutrophils were the primary inflammatory cells within 3 weeks after CBDL and at 4 week after TAA. M2 macrophages were the primary inflammatory cells, meantime, pulmonary fibrosis, GM-CSFR, and CCR2 were specifically increased from 4 week after CBDL. AntiPMN antibody treatment decreased neutrophil and macrophage accumulation, CL or the combination of antiGM-CSF antibody and bindarit treatment decreased macrophage recruitment, resulting in pulmonary fibrosis, vascular dilatation, and hypoxemia in CBDL rats alleviated. The combination treatment of GM-CSF and MCP1 promoted cell migration, M2 macrophage differentiation, and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) production in BMDMs. Conclusively, our results highlight neutrophil recruitment mediates pulmonary vascular dilatation and hypoxemia in the early stage of rat HPS. Further, M2 macrophage accumulation induced by GM-CSF/GM-CSFR and MCP1/CCR2 leads to pulmonary fibrosis and promotes vascular dilatation and hypoxemia, as a result, HPS develops.

The Gut-Liver Axis in Chronic Liver Disease: A Macrophage Perspective

Chronic liver disease (CLD) is a growing health concern which accounts for two million deaths per year. Obesity, alcohol overconsumption, and progressive cholestasis are commonly characterized by persistent low-grade inflammation and advancing fibrosis, which form the basis for development of end-stage liver disease complications, including hepatocellular carcinoma. CLD pathophysiology extends to the intestinal tract and is characterized by intestinal dysbiosis, bile acid dysregulation, and gut barrier disruption. In addition, macrophages are key players in CLD progression and intestinal barrier breakdown. Emerging studies are unveiling macrophage heterogeneity and driving factors of their plasticity in health and disease. To date, in-depth investigation of how gut-liver axis disruption impacts the hepatic and intestinal macrophage pool in CLD pathogenesis is scarce. In this review, we give an overview of the role of intestinal and hepatic macrophages in homeostasis and gut-liver axis disruption in progressive stages of CLD.

Renal fibrosis due to multiple cisplatin treatment is exacerbated by kinin B1 receptor antagonism

Cisplatin is a widely used chemotherapeutic drug, but its side effects are a major limiting factor. Nephrotoxicity occurs in one third of patients undergoing cisplatin treatment. The acute tubular injury caused by cisplatin often leads to a defective repair process, which translates into chronic renal disorders. In this way, cisplatin affects tubular cells, and maladaptive tubules regeneration will ultimately result in tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Kinins are well known for being important peptides in the regulation of inflammatory stimuli, and kinin B1 receptor deficiency and antagonism have been shown to be beneficial against acute cisplatin nephrotoxicity. This study aimed to analyze the effects of kinin B1 receptor deletion and antagonism against repeated cisplatin-induced chronic renal dysfunction and fibrosis. Both the deletion and the antagonism of B1 receptor exacerbated cisplatin-induced chronic renal dysfunction. Moreover, the inhibition of B1 receptor increased tubular injury and tubulointerstitial fibrosis after repeated treatment with cisplatin. The balance between M1/M2 macrophage polarization plays an important role in renal fibrosis. Kinin B1 receptor antagonism had no impact on M1 markers when compared to cisplatin. However, YM1, an M2 marker and an important molecule for the wound healing process, was decreased in mice treated with kinin B1 receptor antagonist, compared to cisplatin alone. Endothelin-1 levels were also increased in mice with B1 receptor inhibition. This study showed that kinin B1 receptor inhibition exacerbated cisplatin-induced chronic renal dysfunction and fibrosis, associated with reduced YM1 M2 marker expression, thus possibly affecting the wound healing process.

Sparcl1 promotes nonalcoholic steatohepatitis progression in mice through upregulation of CCL2

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents a spectrum of chronic liver disease ranging from simple steatosis (NAFL) to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). However, the molecular mechanisms of NASH progression remain incompletely understood. White adipose tissue (WAT) has emerged as an important endocrine organ and contributes not only to the initial stage of NAFLD, but also to its severity. In the current study, through transcriptomic analysis we identified increased expression of Sparcl1, a secreted glycoprotein, in the WAT from NASH mice. Plasma Sparcl1 levels were similarly elevated and positively correlated with hepatic pathological features in NASH patients. Functional studies showed that both chronic injection of recombinant Sparcl1 protein and overexpression of Sparcl1 exaggerated hepatic inflammation and liver injury in mice. In contrast, genetic ablation of Sparcl1, knockdown of Sparcl1 in WAT, and treatment with a Sparcl1-neutralizing antibody dramatically alleviated diet-induced NASH pathogenesis. Mechanistically, Sparcl1 promoted the expression of C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) in hepatocytes through binding to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and activation of the NF-κB/p65 signaling pathway. Genetically or pharmacologically blocking the CCL2/CCR2 pathway attenuated the hepatic inflammatory response evoked by Sparcl1. Thus, our results demonstrated an important role for Sparcl1 in NASH progression, suggesting a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Tumor-Associated Neutrophils in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Pathogenesis, Prognosis, and Therapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma represents the most prevalent primary liver cancer worldwide, and it is either caused by intrinsic genetic mutations or by a multitude of extrinsic risk factors. Even though the interplay between chronic inflammatory changes and hepatocarcinogenesis has been at the forefront of clinical investigation for the past few decades, the role of tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) in HCC development still remains ambiguous. On the one hand, N1 TANs exhibit an anti-tumorigenic activity, mediated by direct or indirect tumor cell lysis, whereas on the other hand, N2 TANs have been correlated with increased HCC growth, invasiveness, and metastasis. The association of an elevated Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR) with poor prognosis in patients with HCC, has been recently brought into spotlight, consolidating its widespread use as a reliable biomarker. Due to the decisive involvement of TANs in HCC pathogenesis and development, the utilization of various neutrophil-centered anticancer treatment modalities has been under clinical experimentation, selectively targeting and modulating the processes of neutrophil recruitment, activation, and migration. This review summarizes current evidence on the role of TANs in HCC pathogenesis and progression, as well as in their potential involvement in tumor therapy, shedding light on emerging anticancer treatment methods targeting neutrophils.

Liver macrophages and inflammation in physiology and physiopathology of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Non‐alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the hepatic manifestation of metabolic syndrome, being a common comorbidity of type 2 diabetes and with important links to inflammation and insulin resistance. NAFLD represents a spectrum of liver conditions ranging from steatosis in the form of ectopic lipid storage, to inflammation and fibrosis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Macrophages that populate the liver play important roles in maintaining liver homeostasis under normal physiology and in promoting inflammation and mediating fibrosis in the progression of NAFLD toward to NASH. Liver macrophages are a heterogenous group of innate immune cells, originating from the yolk sac or from circulating monocytes, that are required to maintain immune tolerance while being exposed portal and pancreatic blood flow rich in nutrients and hormones. Yet, liver macrophages retain a limited capacity to raise the alarm in response to danger signals. We now know that macrophages in the liver play both inflammatory and noninflammatory roles throughout the progression of NAFLD. Macrophage responses are mediated first at the level of cell surface receptors that integrate environmental stimuli, signals are transduced through multiple levels of regulation in the cell, and specific transcriptional programmes dictate effector functions. These effector functions play paramount roles in determining the course of disease in NAFLD and even more so in the progression towards NASH. The current review covers recent reports in the physiological and pathophysiological roles of liver macrophages in NAFLD. We emphasise the responses of liver macrophages to insulin resistance and the transcriptional machinery that dictates liver macrophage function.

Monocyte dysregulation: consequences for hepatic infections

Liver disorders due to infections are a substantial health concern in underdeveloped and industrialized countries. This includes not only hepatotropic viruses (e.g., hepatitis B, hepatitis C) but also bacterial and parasitic infections such as amebiasis, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, or echinococcosis. Recent studies of the immune mechanisms underlying liver disease show that monocytes play an essential role in determining patient outcomes. Monocytes are derived from the mononuclear phagocyte lineage in the bone marrow and are present in nearly all tissues of the body; these cells function as part of the early innate immune response that reacts to challenge by external pathogens. Due to their special ability to develop into tissue macrophages and dendritic cells and to change from an inflammatory to an anti-inflammatory phenotype, monocytes play a pivotal role in infectious and non-infectious liver diseases: they can maintain inflammation and support resolution of inflammation. Therefore, tight regulation of monocyte recruitment and termination of monocyte-driven immune responses in the liver is prerequisite to appropriate healing of organ damage. In this review, we discuss monocyte-dependent immune mechanisms underlying hepatic infectious disorders. Better understanding of these immune mechanisms may lead to development of new interventions to treat acute liver disease and prevent progression to organ failure.

Establishment of Humanized Mice for the Study of HBV

Viral hepatitis particularly Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) is still an ongoing health issue worldwide. Despite the vast technological advancements in research and development, only HBV vaccines, typically given during early years, are currently available as a preventive measure against acquiring the disease from a secondary source. In general, HBV can be cleared naturally by the human immune system if detected at low levels early. However, long term circulation of HBV in the peripheral blood may be detrimental to the human liver, specifically targeting human hepatocytes for cccDNA integration which inevitably supports HBV life cycle for the purpose of reinfection in healthy cells. Although there is some success in using nucleoside analogs or polyclonal antibodies targeting HBV surface antigens (HBsAg) in patients with acute or chronic HBV+ (CHB), majority of them would either respond only partially or succumb to the disease entirely unless they undergo liver transplants from a fully matched healthy donor and even so may not necessarily guarantee a 100% chance of survival. Indeed, in vitro/ex vivo cultures and various transgenic animal models have already provided us with a good understanding of HBV but they primarily lack human specificity or virus-host interactions in the presence of human immune surveillance. Therefore, the demand of utilizing humanized mice has increased over the last decade as a pre-clinical platform for investigating human-specific immune responses against HBV as well as identifying potential immunotherapeutic strategies in eradicating the virus. Basically, this review covers some of the recent developments and key advantages of humanized mouse models over other conventional transgenic mice platforms.

Synergistic effects of immunoregulation and osteoinduction of ds-block elements on titanium surface

Ds-block elements have been gaining increasing attention in the field of biomaterials modification, owing to their excellent biological properties, such as antibiosis, osteogenesis, etc. However, their function mechanisms are not well understood and conflicting conclusions were drawn by previous studies on this issue, which are mainly resulted from the inconsistent experimental conditions. In this work, three most widely used ds-block elements, copper, zinc, and silver were introduced on titanium substrate by plasma immersion ion implantation method to investigate the rule of ds-block elements in the immune responses. Results showed that the implanted samples could decrease the inflammatory responses compared with Ti sample. The trend of anti-inflammatory effects of macrophages on samples was in correlation with cellular ROS levels, which was induced by the implanted biomaterials and positively correlated with the number of valence electrons of ds-block elements. The co-culture experiments of macrophages and bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells showed that these two kinds of cells could enhance the anti-inflammation and osteogenesis of samples by the paracrine manner of PGE2. In general, in their steady states on titanium substrate (Cu2+, Zn2+, Ag), the ds-block elements with more valence electrons exhibit better anti-inflammatory and osteogenic effects. Moreover, molecular biology experiments indicate that the PGE2-related signaling pathway may contribute to the desired immunoregulation and osteoinduction capability of ds-block elements. These findings suggest a correlation between the number of valence electrons of ds-block elements and the relevant biological responses, which provides new insight into the selection of implanted ions and surface design of biomaterials.

Histological and Biochemical Changes in Adult Male Rat Liver after Spinal Cord Injury with Evaluation of the Role of Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disease leading to motor disability. Metabolic dysfunction is another complication of SCI. Thus, we aimed to study the effect of SCI on the histological and biochemical structure of the liver in adult male rats and to delineate the role of post-injury administration of G-CSF. Thirty adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned into three groups: Group I; control (18 rats subdivided equally into three subgroups), and 12 rats underwent SCI and were divided into an SCI group II and G-SCF-treated group III. Twenty-one days post-injury, liver sections were processed for light and electron microscopic examinations and immunohistochemical staining for PCNA and CD68 antibodies. The biochemical assay was carried out for detection of serum levels of ALT, AST, total proteins, albumin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL-c, GSH and MDA. Liver tissue levels of GPx and MDA as well as semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis of hepatic cytokine expression were also conducted. In the SCI group, results showed liver tissue damage in the form of lipid infiltration, blood vessel congestion, vacuolated cells with apoptotic nuclei and increased collagen deposition. Increased CD68-positive macrophages and a decreased number of PCNA-positive cells was detected. Moreover, liver enzymes, total cholesterol and triglycerides were increased while serum albumin, total proteins and HDL-c were decreased in the SCI group. Oxidative stress and increased expression of inflammatory cytokines were detected. Administration of G-CSF induced significant liver improvement with retained liver function by anti-inflammatory, immune-modulatory and antioxidant mechanisms.

Tissue-Specific Role of Macrophages in Noninfectious Inflammatory Disorders

Chronic inflammation may not begin with local tissue disorders, such as hypoxia, but with the accumulation of critically activated macrophages in one site. The purpose of this review is to analyze the data reported in the scientific literature on the features of the functions of macrophages and their contributions to the development of pathology in various tissues during aseptic inflammation in obese subjects. In individuals with obesity, increased migration of monocytes from the peripheral blood to various tissues, the proliferation of resident macrophages and a change in the balance between alternatively activated anti-inflammatory macrophages (M2) and pro-inflammatory classically activated macrophages (M1) towards the latter have been observed. The primary cause of some metabolic pathologies has been precisely identified as the recruitment of macrophages with an altered phenotype, which is probably typical for many other pathologies. Recent studies have identified phenotypes, such as metabolically activated M (MMe), oxidized (Mox), hemoglobin-related macrophages (Mhem and MHb), M4 and neuroimmunological macrophages (NAM, SAM), which directly and indirectly affect energy metabolism. The high heterogeneity of macrophages in tissues contributes to the involvement of these cells in the development of a wide range of immune responses, including pathological ones. The replenishment of tissue-specific macrophages occurs at the expense of infiltrating monocyte-derived macrophages (MoMFs) in the pathological process. The origin of MoMFs from a general precursor retains their common regulatory mechanisms and similar sensitivity to regulatory stimuli. This makes it possible to find universal approaches to the effect on these cells and, as a consequence, universal approaches for the treatment of various pathological conditions.

Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is fully expressed in the genital tract, seminal plasma and spermatozoa of male pigs

Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine identified in boar seminal plasma (SP) but until now unexplored in terms of place of production and its association to spermatozoa. This study aimed to explore these aspects by evaluating the presence of GM-CSF in porcine reproductive organs (testes, epididymis and accessory sex glands), SP and mature spermatozoa (from cauda epididymis and ejaculated) using Western blot (WB), immunohistochemistry and immunocytochemistry. Positive labelling was obtained in tissues, SP and spermatozoa. In reproductive organs, WB revealed three forms of GM-CSF with different glycosylation degrees (15, 31 and 40 kDa). In SP and epididymal fluid, the GM-CSF appeared only in its active form while in spermatozoa the GM-CSF form present varied among sperm sources. Non-viable spermatozoa showed more GM-CSF than viable spermatozoa (14.87 ± 1.98 RU vs. 7.25 ± 0.52 RU) of fluorescence intensity. In conclusion, GM-CSF is widely present in the reproductive tract of male pigs, attached to the spermatozoa already in the epididymis as well as verted to SP. Consequently, the GM-CSF ought to regulate male genital tract and sperm function as well as mediating initial inflammatory responses and further mediating later immune actions by the female to semen deposition.

Overview of multiplex immunohistochemistry/immunofluorescence techniques in the era of cancer immunotherapy

Conventional immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a widely used diagnostic technique in tissue pathology. However, this technique is associated with a number of limitations, including high inter-observer variability and the capacity to label only one marker per tissue section. This review details various highly multiplexed techniques that have emerged to circumvent these constraints, allowing simultaneous detection of multiple markers on a single tissue section and the comprehensive study of cell composition, cellular functional and cell-cell interactions. Among these techniques, multiplex Immunohistochemistry/Immunofluorescence (mIHC/IF) has emerged to be particularly promising. mIHC/IF provides high-throughput multiplex staining and standardized quantitative analysis for highly reproducible, efficient and cost-effective tissue studies. This technique has immediate potential for translational research and clinical practice, particularly in the era of cancer immunotherapy.