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Marinelli F, Moncel MH, Lemorini C. The use of bones as tools in Late Lower Paleolithic of Central Italy. Sci Rep 2024; 14:11666. [PMID: 38778167 PMCID: PMC11111801 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-62612-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Latium area in Italy has yielded rich evidence of Lower Paleolithic sites with both faunal remains, artefacts, and human fossil remains, such as the Ceprano human skull. Many are the sites where lithic industry has been found in association with bone industry. Medium and large animals were a key resource because they provided an enormous amount of meat and fat. However, they were extensively exploited for their bones, rich in marrow, and as raw material for tool production. Bone tools are so far few documented for early period of time and especially for the Middle Pleistocene in Western Europe. We report here evidence of bone tools and their efficiency of use for hominin groups living in the Frosinone-Ceprano basin during the MIS 11/10, a key period which records behavioral innovations and onset of the Neanderthal behaviors. In three sites, Isoletta, Colle Avarone and Selvotta, several bone tools and bone flakes have been discovered (MIS 11/10). They were associated to stone artefacts part of the hominins tool-kit. Technological and use-wear analyses conducted on these bone industries, dated between 410 and 430 ka, yield relevant results to understand the effectiveness of the bones tools found associated with lithic series, including handaxes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Marinelli
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Classic Department, LTFAPA Laboratory, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marie-Helénè Moncel
- UMR 7194 HNHP, CNRS-MNHN-UPVD,, Department Homme et Environnement, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle Paris, Paris, France
| | - Cristina Lemorini
- Classic Department, LTFAPA Laboratory, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
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2
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Parfitt SA, Bello SM. Bone tools, carnivore chewing and heavy percussion: assessing conflicting interpretations of Lower and Upper Palaeolithic bone assemblages. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:231163. [PMID: 38179084 PMCID: PMC10762443 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.231163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
The use of bone tools by early humans has provided valuable insights into their technology, behaviour and cognitive abilities. However, identifying minimally modified or unshaped Palaeolithic osseous tools can be challenging, particularly when they are mixed with bones altered by natural taphonomic processes. This has hampered the study of key technical innovations, such as the use of bones, antlers and teeth as hammers or pressure-flakers to work (knap) stone tools. Bones chewed by carnivores can resemble osseous knapping tools and have sometimes been mistaken for them. In this paper, we review recent advances in the study of osseous knapping tools with a focus on two Palaeolithic sites in the UK, the Acheulean Horse Butchery Site at Boxgrove and the Magdalenian site of Gough's Cave, where knapping tools were mis-attributed to carnivore chewing. These osseous knapping tools are investigated using microscopy, high-resolution imaging and comparisons with experimental knapping tools. This allows for new insights into human behaviour at these sites and opens fresh avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon A. Parfitt
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31–34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK
- Centre of Human Evolution Research, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Silvia M. Bello
- Centre of Human Evolution Research, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
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Milks A, Lehmann J, Leder D, Sietz M, Koddenberg T, Böhner U, Wachtendorf V, Terberger T. A double-pointed wooden throwing stick from Schöningen, Germany: Results and new insights from a multianalytical study. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0287719. [PMID: 37467169 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0287719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The site of Schöningen (Germany), dated to ca. 300,000 years ago, yielded the earliest large-scale record of humanly-made wooden tools. These include wooden spears and shorter double-pointed sticks, discovered in association with herbivores that were hunted and butchered along a lakeshore. Wooden tools have not been systematically analysed to the same standard as other Palaeolithic technologies, such as lithic or bone tools. Our multianalytical study includes micro-CT scanning, 3-dimensional microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, supporting a systematic technological and taphonomic analysis, thus setting a new standard for wooden tool analysis. In illustrating the biography of one of Schöningen's double-pointed sticks, we demonstrate new human behaviours for this time period, including sophisticated woodworking techniques. The hominins selected a spruce branch which they then debarked and shaped into an aerodynamic and ergonomic tool. They likely seasoned the wood to avoid cracking and warping. After a long period of use, it was probably lost while hunting, and was then rapidly buried in mud. Taphonomic alterations include damage from trampling, fungal attack, root damage and compression. Through our detailed analysis we show that Middle Pleistocene humans had a rich awareness of raw material properties, and possessed sophisticated woodworking skills. Alongside new detailed morphometrics of the object, an ethnographic review supports a primary function as a throwing stick for hunting, indicating potential hunting strategies and social contexts including for communal hunts involving children. The Schöningen throwing sticks may have been used to strategically disadvantage larger ungulates, potentially from distances of up to 30 metres. They also demonstrate that the hominins were technologically capable of capturing smaller fast prey and avian fauna, a behaviour evidenced at contemporaneous Middle Pleistocene archaeological sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annemieke Milks
- Department of Archaeology, University of Reading, Reading, United Kingdom
| | - Jens Lehmann
- Department of Hunter-Gatherer Archaeology, Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (Lower Saxony State Office for Cultural Heritage), Hannover, Germany
| | - Dirk Leder
- Department of Hunter-Gatherer Archaeology, Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (Lower Saxony State Office for Cultural Heritage), Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael Sietz
- Archaeological Conservation Department, Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (Lower Saxony State Office for Cultural Heritage), Hannover, Germany
| | - Tim Koddenberg
- Wood Biology and Wood Products, Faculty of Forest Sciences and Forest Ecology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Utz Böhner
- Inventory and Heritage Atlas, Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (Lower Saxony State Office for Cultural Heritage), Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Thomas Terberger
- Department of Hunter-Gatherer Archaeology, Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege (Lower Saxony State Office for Cultural Heritage), Hannover, Germany
- Department of Prehistoric Archaeology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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Doyon L, Faure T, Sanz M, Daura J, Cassard L, d’Errico F. A 39,600-year-old leather punch board from Canyars, Gavà, Spain. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadg0834. [PMID: 37043572 PMCID: PMC10096582 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg0834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Puncture alignments are found on Palaeolithic carvings, pendants, and other fully shaped osseous artifacts. These marks were interpreted as abstract decorations, system of notations, and features present on human and animal depictions. Here, we create an experimental framework for the analysis and interpretation of human-made punctures and apply it to a highly intriguing, punctured bone fragment found at Canyars, an Early Upper Palaeolithic coastal site from Catalonia, Spain. Changes of tool and variation in the arrangement and orientation of punctures are consistent with the interpretation of this object as the earliest-known leather work punch board recording six episodes of hide pricking, one of which was to produce a linear seam. Our results indicate that Aurignacian hunters-gatherers used this technology to produce leather works and probably tailored clothes well before the introduction of bone eyed needles in Europe 15,000 years later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Doyon
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR 5199 PACEA, Bât. B2, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS50023, Pessac 33600, France
- Shandong University, Institute of Cultural Heritage, Jimo-Binhai Highway 72, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Thomas Faure
- Institut Polytechnique de Bordeaux, École Nationale Supérieure de Cognitique, 109 avenue Raoul, Talence Cedex 33405, France
| | - Montserrat Sanz
- Universitat de Barcelona, Grup de Recerca del Quaternari (GRQ-SERP), C/Montalegre 6-8, Barcelona 08001, Spain
| | - Joan Daura
- Universitat de Barcelona, Grup de Recerca del Quaternari (GRQ-SERP), C/Montalegre 6-8, Barcelona 08001, Spain
| | - Laura Cassard
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR 5199 PACEA, Bât. B2, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS50023, Pessac 33600, France
| | - Francesco d’Errico
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR 5199 PACEA, Bât. B2, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS50023, Pessac 33600, France
- University of Bergen, SFF Center for Early Sapiens Behavior (SapienCE), Øysteinsgate 3, Posboks 7805, Bergen 5020, Norway
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García-Medrano P, Moncel MH, Maldonado-Garrido E, Ollé A, Ashton N. The Western European Acheulean: Reading variability at a regional scale. J Hum Evol 2023; 179:103357. [PMID: 37060623 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Abstract
In the context of the Western European Acheulean Project, this study aims to characterize Acheulean technology in Western Europe through the analysis of handaxes and cleavers from 10 key sites (Britain 4, France 4, and Spain 2) to acquire a regional view of the occupation. The historically different systems used to categorize and analyze the data have made it difficult to compare results. Here we apply a unified and simple method (Western European Acheulean Project) that combines the traditional technological and metrical analysis of assemblages containing handaxes and cleavers with an in-depth geometric morphometric approach using three-dimensional models. This approach allows us to achieve a regional interpretation that identifies innovations through time and shaping strategies across the area. Our findings indicate the existence of two main technological groups in the sampled record: 1) northwestern and central France and Britain, from MIS 17/16 to MIS 11, and 2) Atlantic edge (Atapuerca in Spain and Menez-Dregan in France), from MIS 12/11 to MIS 8. Based on our technological analysis, the shaping of handaxes and cleavers was developed through time as a continuum of accumulative actions, with longer and more complex shaping strategies over time. Shaping technology shows traditions of manufacture over both time and geographical areas, which suggest cultural diffusion. Our geometric morphometric analysis further helped to identify not only general trends but also local adaptations in handaxe forms. Based on our findings, there were no apparent sudden innovations, but rather the application and development of specific techniques to refine size and shape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula García-Medrano
- Dept. Britain, Europe and Prehistory, British Museum, Frank House, 56 Orsman Road N1 5QJ, London, UK; UMR 7194 HNHP, MNHN-CNRS-UPVD, Département Homme et Environnement, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, IPH 1 Rue René Panhard, 75013, Paris, France; Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES-CERCA), Zona Educacional 4, Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), 43007 Tarragona, Spain; Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament d'Història i Història de l'Art, Avinguda de Catalunya 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain.
| | - Marie-Hélène Moncel
- UMR 7194 HNHP, MNHN-CNRS-UPVD, Département Homme et Environnement, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, IPH 1 Rue René Panhard, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Elías Maldonado-Garrido
- Dept. Britain, Europe and Prehistory, British Museum, Frank House, 56 Orsman Road N1 5QJ, London, UK
| | - Andreu Ollé
- Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES-CERCA), Zona Educacional 4, Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), 43007 Tarragona, Spain; Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Departament d'Història i Història de l'Art, Avinguda de Catalunya 35, 43002 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Nick Ashton
- Dept. Britain, Europe and Prehistory, British Museum, Frank House, 56 Orsman Road N1 5QJ, London, UK
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Verheijen I, Starkovich BM, Serangeli J, van Kolfschoten T, Conard NJ. Early evidence for bear exploitation during MIS 9 from the site of Schöningen 12 (Germany). J Hum Evol 2023; 177:103294. [PMID: 36566141 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A cutmarked bear metatarsal and phalanx from the German open-air sites of Schöningen 12 II-1 and 12 B, respectively, correlated with the interglacial optimum of MIS 9 (ca. 320 ka), provide early evidence for the exploitation of bear skins. Archaeological sites with evidence of bear exploitation from the Lower Paleolithic are rare, with only Boxgrove (United Kingdom) and Bilzingsleben (Germany) yielding cutmarked bear bones indicating skinning. We interpret these finds as evidence for bear hunting and primary access since bear skins are best extracted shortly after the animal's death. The very thin cutmarks found on the Schöningen specimens indicate delicate butchering and show similarities in butchery patterns to bears from other Paleolithic sites. The Eurasian Lower Paleolithic record does not show any evidence for the exploitation of bear meat; only Middle Paleolithic sites, such as Biache-Saint-Vaast (France; ca. 175 ka) and Taubach (Germany; ca. 120 ka), yield evidence for the exploitation of both skin and meat from bear carcasses. Bear skins have high insulating properties and might have played a role in the adaptations of Middle Pleistocene hominins to the cold and harsh winter conditions of Northwestern Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivo Verheijen
- University of Tübingen, Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, Paläon 1, 38364 Schöningen, Germany; Forschungsmuseum Schöningen, Paläon 1, 38364 Schöningen, Germany.
| | - Britt M Starkovich
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, University of Tübingen, Hölderlinstrasse 12, 72074 Tübingen, Germany; Institute for Archaeological Sciences, University of Tübingen, Hölderlinstrasse 12, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jordi Serangeli
- University of Tübingen, Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, Paläon 1, 38364 Schöningen, Germany
| | - Thijs van Kolfschoten
- Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands; Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University, 72 Binhai Highway, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Nicholas J Conard
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, University of Tübingen, Hölderlinstrasse 12, 72074 Tübingen, Germany; Institute for Archaeological Sciences, University of Tübingen, Hölderlinstrasse 12, 72074 Tübingen, Germany; Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, University of Tübingen, Schloss Hohentübingen, 72070 Tübingen, Germany
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Using microartifacts to infer Middle Pleistocene lifeways at Schöningen, Germany. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21148. [PMID: 36522355 PMCID: PMC9755147 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24769-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
While archeologists usually favor the study of large and diagnostic lithic artifacts, this study illustrates the invaluable contribution of lithic microartifacts for interpreting hominin lifeways. Across a 64 m2 area of the Middle Pleistocene lakeshore site of Schöningen 13 II-3 in Northern Germany, we recovered a total of 57 small and micro flint artifacts, four small debris pieces, three natural fragments and three bone retouchers in close association with the skeleton of an extinct Eurasian straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus). This area lacks the type of formal knapped stone tools that would normally constitute the focus of archeological interpretations. By adopting a holistic approach, including morpho-technical analysis, experimental archeology, and use-wear and residue analyses, we demonstrate that these small and microartifacts are resharpening flakes that tell the story of the site. Fifteen resharpening flakes preserve microwear traces of processing wood. Microscopic residues of wood adhered to the former working edges of the tools corroborate this observation. Additionally, hominins used a sharp-edged, natural fragment of flint to process fresh animal tissue, which likely originates from the butchery of the elephant. These results provide unique, 300,000-year-old evidence for the functionally interconnected use of lithic, osseous and wood technologies. Furthermore, we document in-situ transformations of stone tools and the presence of both curational and expedient behaviors, thereby demonstrating the temporal depth of hominin activities at the lakeshore where the elephant died, and in the broader landscape as a whole.
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Taphonomic and technological analyses of Lower Palaeolithic bone tools from Clacton-on-Sea, UK. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20222. [PMID: 36418870 PMCID: PMC9684524 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-23989-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The exceptional survival of Middle Pleistocene wooden spears at Schöningen (Germany) and Clacton-on-Sea (UK) provides tantalizing evidence for the widespread use of organic raw materials by early humans. At Clacton, less well-known organic artefacts include modified bones that were identified by the Abbé Henri Breuil in the 1920s. Some of these pieces were described and figured by Hazzledine Warren in his classic 1951 paper on the flint industry from the Clacton Channel, but they have been either overlooked in subsequent studies or dismissed as the product of natural damage. We provide the first detailed analysis of two Clactonian bone tools found by Warren and a previously unrecognized example recovered in 1934 during excavations directed by Mary Leakey. Microscopic examination of percussion damage suggests the bones were used as knapping hammers to shape or resharpen flake tools. Early Palaeolithic bone tools are exceedingly rare, and the Clacton examples are the earliest known organic knapping hammers associated with a core-and-flake (Mode 1) lithic technology. The use of soft hammers for knapping challenges the consensus that Clactonian flintknapping was undertaken solely with hard hammerstones, thus removing a major technological and behavioural difference used to distinguish the Clactonian from late Acheulean handaxe (Mode 2) industries.
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Martellotta EF, Perston YL, Craft P, Wilkins J, Langley MC. Beyond the main function: An experimental study of the use of hardwood boomerangs in retouching activities. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273118. [PMID: 35972969 PMCID: PMC9380927 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Retouched lithic tools result from the functional modification of their edges following knapping operations. The study of the later stages of the reduction sequence is fundamental to understanding the techno-functional features of any toolkit. In Australia, a gap exists in the study of the chaîne opératoire of lithic tools shaped or re-shaped through percussion retouching. In our previous works (Martellotta EF., 2021, Martellotta EF., 2022), we have presented evidence for the use of hardwood boomerangs for retouching purposes in Australian Aboriginal communities. Through a detailed experimental protocol, the present study demonstrates how boomerangs can function as retouchers. We found that the use-wear generated on the boomerang’s surface during retouch activity is comparable to retouch-induced impact traces observed on Palaeolithic bone retouchers, as well as to experimental bone retouchers generated in our replication experiments. Finally, we explore the role that microscopic lithic chips embedded in the retouchers’ surface play in the formation process of retouching marks. Our results address the need for a deeper investigation of percussion retouching techniques in Australian contexts, opening the possibility that uncommon objects—such as boomerangs—could be used for this task. This concept also highlights the broader topic of the highly diverse multipurpose application of many Indigenous tools throughout Australia. At the same time, the study reveals a deep functional connection between osseous and wooden objects—a topic rarely investigated in archaeological contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Francesca Martellotta
- Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Yinika L. Perston
- Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Centre for Social Cultural Research, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Paul Craft
- Birrunburra/Bundjalung/Yugambeh/Yuggera & Turrbal Aboriginal Nations
- Burragun Aboriginal Cultural Services, Burleigh Heads, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jayne Wilkins
- Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Human Evolution Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Michelle C. Langley
- Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Salagnon M, Cremona S, Joliot M, d’Errico F, Mellet E. Neural correlates of perceiving and interpreting engraved prehistoric patterns as human production: Effect of archaeological expertise. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0271732. [PMID: 35921273 PMCID: PMC9348741 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been suggested that engraved abstract patterns dating from the Middle and Lower Palaeolithic served as means of representation and communication. Identifying the brain regions involved in visual processing of these engravings can provide insights into their function. In this study, brain activity was measured during perception of the earliest known Palaeolithic engraved patterns and compared to natural patterns mimicking human-made engravings. Participants were asked to categorise marks as being intentionally made by humans or due to natural processes (e.g. erosion, root etching). To simulate the putative familiarity of our ancestors with the marks, the responses of expert archaeologists and control participants were compared, allowing characterisation of the effect of previous knowledge on both behaviour and brain activity in perception of the marks. Besides a set of regions common to both groups and involved in visual analysis and decision-making, the experts exhibited greater activity in the inferior part of the lateral occipital cortex, ventral occipitotemporal cortex, and medial thalamic regions. These results are consistent with those reported in visual expertise studies, and confirm the importance of the integrative visual areas in the perception of the earliest abstract engravings. The attribution of a natural rather than human origin to the marks elicited greater activity in the salience network in both groups, reflecting the uncertainty and ambiguity in the perception of, and decision-making for, natural patterns. The activation of the salience network might also be related to the process at work in the attribution of an intention to the marks. The primary visual area was not specifically involved in the visual processing of engravings, which argued against its central role in the emergence of engraving production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Salagnon
- CNRS, CEA, IMN, GIN, UMR 5293, Université Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sandrine Cremona
- CNRS, CEA, IMN, GIN, UMR 5293, Université Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Marc Joliot
- CNRS, CEA, IMN, GIN, UMR 5293, Université Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Francesco d’Errico
- PACEA UMR 5199, CNRS, Université Bordeaux, Pessac, France
- SFF Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour (SapienCE), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Emmanuel Mellet
- CNRS, CEA, IMN, GIN, UMR 5293, Université Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
- * E-mail:
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Bello SM, Crété L, Galway-Witham J, Parfitt SA. Knapping tools in Magdalenian contexts: New evidence from Gough's Cave (Somerset, UK). PLoS One 2021; 16:e0261031. [PMID: 34941899 PMCID: PMC8699705 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0261031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Our knowledge of the recolonization of north-west Europe at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum depends to a large extent on finds from Gough’s Cave (Somerset, UK). Ultra-high resolution radiocarbon determinations suggest that the cave was occupied seasonally by Magdalenian hunters for perhaps no more than two or three human generations, centred on 12,600 BP (~14,950–14,750 cal BP). They left behind a rich and diverse assemblage of Magdalenian lithic and osseous artefacts, butchered animal bones, and cannibalised human remains. The faunal assemblage from Gough’s Cave is one of the most comprehensively studied from any Magdalenian site, yet new and unexpected discoveries continue to be made. Here, we record previously unrecognized flint-knapping tools that were identified during a survey of the Gough’s Cave faunal collection at the Natural History Museum (London). We identified bones used as hammers and teeth manipulated as pressure-flakers to manufacture flint tools. Most of the pieces appear to be ad hoc (single-use?) tools, but a horse molar was almost certainly a curated object that was used over an extended period to work many stone tools. This paper explores how these knapping tools were used to support a more nuanced understanding of Magdalenian stone-tool manufacturing processes. Moreover, we provide a standard for identifying minimally-used knapping tools that will help to establish whether retouchers and other organic stone-working tools are as rare in the Magdalenian archaeological record as current studies suggest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia M. Bello
- Centre for Human Evolution Research, Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (SMB); (SAP)
| | - Lucile Crété
- Centre for Human Evolution Research, Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
| | - Julia Galway-Witham
- Department of Anthropology, New York University, New York, NY, United States of America
- New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Simon A. Parfitt
- Centre for Human Evolution Research, Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (SMB); (SAP)
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12
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Acheulean variability in Western Europe: The case of Menez-Dregan I (Plouhinec, Finistère, France). J Hum Evol 2021; 162:103103. [PMID: 34883259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The establishment of the Acheulean in Europe occurred after MIS 17, but it was after the harsh glaciation of MIS 12 and during the long interglacial of MIS 11 that human occupation of Western Europe became more sustained, with an increased number of sites. Menez-Dregan I (Brittany, France) is one of the key sites in Western Europe that dates from this threshold, with an alternating sequence of 16 occupation levels and four marine deposits, from MIS 12 to 8. The large lithic assemblages of more than 154,000 artifacts from knapping (cores, flakes) and shaping (macrotools and shaping flakes) show the varying use of raw materials and activities at the site through the sequence. This work focuses on the study of the handaxes and cleavers using technological and metrical methods with multivariate analysis, in combination with geometric morphometrics, and places these analyses within the context of other technological changes at the site. Collectively, results show the persistent use through the sequence of the same lithic raw materials and technologies, including fire use and the import of glossy sandstone from 20 km away, but with variation in activities at the site. These findings suggest that Menez-Dregan I shows the development of a specific material culture that reflects the local resources and environment. Results further indicate that the site shows the sustained hominin occupation of the area, despite varying climate and environment, with strong traditions of social learning that were maintained through flexibility of site use, deep understanding of the local territory, and the innovation of new technologies, such as the use of fire. Evidence from the site is placed within the wider context of Europe, and contrasted with areas to the north, such as Britain, where hominin occupation was more sporadic and driven by cyclical climate change.
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13
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A 51,000-year-old engraved bone reveals Neanderthals' capacity for symbolic behaviour. Nat Ecol Evol 2021; 5:1273-1282. [PMID: 34226702 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-021-01487-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
While there is substantial evidence for art and symbolic behaviour in early Homo sapiens across Africa and Eurasia, similar evidence connected to Neanderthals is sparse and often contested in scientific debates. Each new discovery is thus crucial for our understanding of Neanderthals' cognitive capacity. Here we report on the discovery of an at least 51,000-year-old engraved giant deer phalanx found at the former cave entrance of Einhornhöhle, northern Germany. The find comes from an apparent Middle Palaeolithic context that is linked to Neanderthals. The engraved bone demonstrates that conceptual imagination, as a prerequisite to compose individual lines into a coherent design, was present in Neanderthals. Therefore, Neanderthal's awareness of symbolic meaning is very likely. Our findings show that Neanderthals were capable of creating symbolic expressions before H. sapiens arrived in Central Europe.
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14
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Villa P, Boschian G, Pollarolo L, Saccà D, Marra F, Nomade S, Pereira A. Elephant bones for the Middle Pleistocene toolmaker. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0256090. [PMID: 34437571 PMCID: PMC8389514 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of bone as raw material for implements is documented since the Early Pleistocene. Throughout the Early and Middle Pleistocene bone tool shaping was done by percussion flaking, the same technique used for knapping stone artifacts, although bone shaping was rare compared to stone tool flaking. Until recently the generally accepted idea was that early bone technology was essentially immediate and expedient, based on single-stage operations, using available bone fragments of large to medium size animals. Only Upper Paleolithic bone tools would involve several stages of manufacture with clear evidence of primary flaking or breaking of bone to produce the kind of fragments required for different kinds of tools. Our technological and taphonomic analysis of the bone assemblage of Castel di Guido, a Middle Pleistocene site in Italy, now dated by 40Ar/39Ar to about 400 ka, shows that this general idea is inexact. In spite of the fact that the number of bone bifaces at the site had been largely overestimated in previous publications, the number of verified, human-made bone tools is 98. This is the highest number of flaked bone tools made by pre-modern hominids published so far. Moreover the Castel di Guido bone assemblage is characterized by systematic production of standardized blanks (elephant diaphysis fragments) and clear diversity of tool types. Bone smoothers and intermediate pieces prove that some features of Aurignacian technology have roots that go beyond the late Mousterian, back to the Middle Pleistocene. Clearly the Castel di Guido hominids had done the first step in the process of increasing complexity of bone technology. We discuss the reasons why this innovation was not developed. The analysis of the lithic industry is done for comparison with the bone industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Villa
- University of Colorado Museum of Natural History, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Istituto Italiano di Paleontologia Umana, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Luca Pollarolo
- School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Laboratoire Archéologie et Peuplement de l’Afrique, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Saccà
- Dipartimento di Civiltà e Forme del Sapere, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Marra
- Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
| | - Sebastien Nomade
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Alison Pereira
- Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS Laboratoire GEOPS, Orsay, France
- Departement Hommes et Environnements, UMR 7194 HNHP, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France
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15
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Ashton N, Davis R. Cultural mosaics, social structure, and identity: The Acheulean threshold in Europe. J Hum Evol 2021; 156:103011. [PMID: 34102521 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The period between 600 and 400 ka is a critical phase for human evolution in Europe. The south and northwest saw a dramatic increase in sites, the spread of handaxe technology alongside bone and wooden tool manufacture, efficient hunting techniques, and the use of fire. Lithic assemblages show considerable variation, including the presence/absence of handaxes and tool morphology. To explain this variation, we propose the Cultural Mosaic Model, which suggests that there is a range of expressions of the Acheulean, with local resources being instrumental in creating distinct material cultures with or without handaxes. We argue that if typologically and technologically distinct assemblage types are regionally distributed, chronologically separated, and persistent over time, then they are unlikely to be caused purely by raw material constraints or functional variation but rather reflect populations with different material cultures. We initially assess the model using British data. Britain was a northwestern peninsula of Europe, and oscillations in climate led to episodic occupation. The terraces of the pre-MIS 12 Bytham River provide a framework for dating occupation to MIS 13 and 15, while during MIS 11, archaeological sites with rich environmental records can be dated to substage level. We suggest there are six chronologically and typologically distinct assemblage types that reflect a series of population incursions into Britain. We review the broader European lithic record, which is consistent with the Cultural Mosaic Model. In developing the model, we suggest that during stable climate, localized cultures developed, while climatic change led to shifts in population, with increased knowledge exchange and gene flow. We suggest that group expression through material culture was an important stage in social development by promoting group cohesion, larger group size, better cooperation, improved knowledge transfer, and enabling populations to survive in larger foraging territories in northern Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Ashton
- British Museum, Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory, Franks House, 56 Orsman Road, London N1 5QJ, UK.
| | - Rob Davis
- British Museum, Department of Britain, Europe and Prehistory, Franks House, 56 Orsman Road, London N1 5QJ, UK
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16
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Doyon L, Li Z, Wang H, Geis L, d’Errico F. A 115,000-year-old expedient bone technology at Lingjing, Henan, China. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0250156. [PMID: 33956805 PMCID: PMC8101957 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Activities attested since at least 2.6 Myr, such as stone knapping, marrow extraction, and woodworking may have allowed early hominins to recognize the technological potential of discarded skeletal remains and equipped them with a transferable skillset fit for the marginal modification and utilization of bone flakes. Identifying precisely when and where expedient bone tools were used in prehistory nonetheless remains a challenging task owing to the multiple natural and anthropogenic processes that can mimic deliberately knapped bones. Here, we compare a large sample of the faunal remains from Lingjing, a 115 ka-old site from China which has yielded important hominin remains and rich faunal and lithic assemblages, with bone fragments produced by experimentally fracturing Equus caballus long bones. Our results provide a set of qualitative and quantitative criteria that can help zooarchaeologists and bone technologists distinguish faunal remains with intentional flake removal scars from those resulting from carcass processing activities. Experimental data shows marrow extraction seldom generates diaphyseal fragments bearing more than six flake scars arranged contiguously or in interspersed series. Long bone fragments presenting such characteristics can, therefore, be interpreted as being purposefully knapped to be used as expediency tools. The identification, based on the above experimental criteria, of 56 bone tools in the Lingjing faunal assemblage is consistent with the smaller size of the lithics found in the same layer. The continuity gradient observed in the size of lithics and knapped bones suggests the latter were used for tasks in which the former were less or not effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc Doyon
- Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
- CNRS UMR5199 –PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, France
| | - Zhanyang Li
- Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Hua Wang
- Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lila Geis
- CNRS UMR5199 –PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, France
| | - Francesco d’Errico
- CNRS UMR5199 –PACEA, Université de Bordeaux, France
- SSF Centre for Early Sapiens Behavior (SapienCe), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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17
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A detailed analysis of the spatial distribution of Schöningen 13II-4 'Spear Horizon' faunal remains. J Hum Evol 2021; 152:102947. [PMID: 33529840 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The Middle Pleistocene Schöningen 13II-4 'Spear Horizon' (Germany) is a key site for the study of human evolution, most notably for the discovery of Paleolithic wooden weaponry and evidence for developed hunting strategies. On the other hand, the 'Spear Horizon' offers an excellent opportunity to approach hominin spatial behavior, thanks to the richness of the archeological assemblage, its exceptional preservation, and the vast expanse of the excavated surface. Analyzing how space was used is essential for understanding hominin behavior at this unique open-air site and, from a wider perspective, for approaching how humans adapted to interglacial environments. In this article, we present an exhaustive spatial study of the complete Schöningen 13II-4 'Spear Horizon' faunal assemblage and its archeological context, combining zooarcheology and spatial analysis through the extensive application of geographic information systems. Our results indicate the existence of different activity areas related to changes in the position of the shoreline due to fluctuations of water table levels of the Schöningen paleolake. These activity areas were likely used on a seasonal basis, whereas the spatial patterning observed in the distribution of faunal remains suggests a diversity of behavioral strategies in terms of intensity and/or duration of occupations. This study refines previous interpretations of the site and reconstructs human behavioral adaptations and the occupational changing lakeland environment during the Middle Pleistocene in Europe.
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18
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Pante M, Torre IDL, d'Errico F, Njau J, Blumenschine R. Bone tools from Beds II-IV, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, and implications for the origins and evolution of bone technology. J Hum Evol 2020; 148:102885. [PMID: 33049586 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The advent of bone technology in Africa is often associated with behavioral modernity that began sometime in the Middle Stone Age. Yet, small numbers of bone tools are known from Early Pleistocene sites in East and South Africa, complicating our understanding of the evolutionary significance of osseous technologies. These early bone tools vary geographically, with those in South Africa indicating use in foraging activities such as termite extraction and those in East Africa intentionally shaped in a manner similar to lithic tool manufacture, leading some to infer multiple hominin species were responsible for bone technology in these regions, with Paranthropus robustus assumed to be the maker of South African bone tools and Homo erectus responsible for those in East Africa. Here, we present on an assemblage of 52 supposed bone tools primarily from Beds III and IV, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, that was excavated by Mary Leakey in the late 1960s and early 1970s, but was only partially published and was never studied in detail from a taphonomic perspective. The majority of the sites from which the tools were recovered were deposited when only H. erectus is known to have existed in the region, potentially allowing a direct link between this fossil hominin and bone technology. Our analysis confirms at least six bone tools in the assemblage, the majority of which are intentionally flaked large mammal bones. However, one of the tools is a preform of the oldest barbed bone point known to exist anywhere in the world and pushes back the initial appearance of this technology by 700 kyr.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Pante
- Department of Anthropology and Geography, Colorado State University, 1787 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.
| | - Ignacio de la Torre
- Instituto de Historia, Spanish National Research Council-CSIC, Albasanz 26-28, 28037, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francesco d'Errico
- UMR 5199 CNRS De la Préhistoire à l'Actuel: Culture, Environnement, et Anthropologie (PACEA), Université de Bordeaux, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS 50023, F - 33615, Pessac CEDEX, Talence, France; Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour, Øysteinsgate 3, Postboks 7805, 5020, University of Bergen, Norway
| | - Jackson Njau
- Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Indiana University, 1001 E Tenth Street, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA; The Stone Age Institute, Bloomington, IN, 47407, USA
| | - Robert Blumenschine
- Palaeontological Scientific Trust and Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, P Bag 3, WITS 2050, South Africa
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19
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Turner E, Humphrey L, Bouzouggar A, Barton N. Bone retouchers and technological continuity in the Middle Stone Age of North Africa. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230642. [PMID: 32226040 PMCID: PMC7105130 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence for specialised bone tools has recently been reported for the Middle Stone Age of North Africa [one], which complements similar finds of slightly younger age in South Africa [two, three]. However, until now scant reference has been made to lesser known tools also made of bone (‘bone retouchers’) that were employed specifically as intermediaries for working or refining stone artefacts, that are sometimes present in these assemblages. In this paper we describe 20 bone retouchers from the cave of Grotte des Pigeons at Taforalt in north-east Morocco. This is the largest stratified assemblage of bone retouchers from a North African MSA site, and the biggest single collection so far from the African Continent. A total of 18 bone retouchers was recovered in securely dated archaeological levels spanning a period from ~ 84.5 ka to 24 ka cal BP. A further two bone retouchers were found in a layer at the base of the deposits in association with Aterian artefacts dating to around 85,000 BP and so far represent the earliest evidence of this type of tool at Taforalt. In this paper we present a first, detailed description of the finds and trace the stages of their production, use and discard (chaîne opératoire). At the same time, we assess if there were diachronic changes in their form and function and, finally, explore their presence in relation to stone tools from the same occupation layers of the cave.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Turner
- Monrepos Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution, RGZM, Neuwied, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Louise Humphrey
- Centre for Human Evolution Research, The Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom
| | - Abdeljalil Bouzouggar
- Institut National des Sciences de l’Archéologie et du Patrimoine, Rabat-Instituts, Rabat, Morocco
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Nick Barton
- Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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20
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Janssens LAA, Verheijen IKA, Serangeli J, van Kolfschoten T. Shoulder osteoarthritis in a European saber-toothed cat (Homotherium latidens) from the Lower Palaeolithic site of Schöningen (Germany). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PALEOPATHOLOGY 2019; 24:279-285. [PMID: 30777196 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpp.2018.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Evaluation of a right ventral scapula fragment from a mature Homotherium latidens from Schöningen, Germany (337-300 ka before present - MIS 9) revealed lesions consisting of an osteophyte at the caudal border of the glenoid cavity, and a large, multilobular, cystic feature in the medio-caudal glenoid cavity. Based on the type of lesions, their localization, their severity, and exclusion of several nutritional and other etiologies such as immune mediated disease, joint infection (septic arthritis), and joint tumors, we conclude that the lesion was caused by trauma or age-related shoulder osteoarthritis (or possibly both). We cannot speculate whether the condition was symptomatic, but if it was, the animal must have functioned well enough to hunt or scavenge, since it survived a significant period of lesion development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luc A A Janssens
- Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands; Evidensia Clinic for Referral Surgery of Companion Animals, Eerste Zeine 112, 5144AM, Waalwijk, The Netherlands; Faculty of Archaeology, Ghent University, Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Ivo K A Verheijen
- Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands; Universität Tübingen/Senckenberg HEP, paläon 1, 38364 Schöningen, Germany
| | - Jordi Serangeli
- Universität Tübingen/Senckenberg HEP, paläon 1, 38364 Schöningen, Germany
| | - Thijs van Kolfschoten
- Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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21
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Abstract
Most Chinese lithic industries dated between 300,000 and 40,000 are characterized by the absence of Levallois debitage, the persistence of core-and-flake knapping, the rarity of prepared cores, their reduction with direct hard hammer percussion, and the rarity of retouched flakes. Here we report the discovery of seven bone soft hammers at the early hominin Lingjing site (Xuchang County, Henan) dated to 125,000–105,000. These artefacts represent the first instance of the use of bone as raw material to modify stone tools found at an East Asian early Late Pleistocene site. Three types of soft hammers are identified. The first consists of large bone flakes resulting from butchery of large herbivores that were utilized as such for expedient stone tools retouching or resharpening. The second involved the fracture of weathered bone from medium size herbivores to obtain elongated splinters shaped by percussion into sub-rectangular artefacts. Traces observed on these objects indicate intensive and possibly recurrent utilization, which implies their curation over time. The last consists of antler, occasionally used. Lingjing bone tools complement what we know about archaic hominin cultural adaptations in East Asia and highlight behavioural consistencies that could not be inferred from other cultural proxies. This discovery provides a new dimension to the debate surrounding the existence of the Middle Palaeolithic in the region. The attribution of East Asian sites to the Middle Palaeolithic assumes that cultural traits such as the Levallois method represent evolutionary hallmarks applicable to regions of the world different from those in which they were originally found. Here, we promote an approach that consists in identifying, possibly from different categories of material culture, the original features of each regional cultural trajectory and understanding the behavioural and cognitive implications they may have had for past hominin populations.
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22
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Zupancich A, Nunziante-Cesaro S, Blasco R, Rosell J, Cristiani E, Venditti F, Lemorini C, Barkai R, Gopher A. Early evidence of stone tool use in bone working activities at Qesem Cave, Israel. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37686. [PMID: 27886245 PMCID: PMC5122879 DOI: 10.1038/srep37686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
For a long while, the controversy surrounding several bone tools coming from pre-Upper Palaeolithic contexts favoured the view of Homo sapiens as the only species of the genus Homo capable of modifying animal bones into specialised tools. However, evidence such as South African Early Stone Age modified bones, European Lower Palaeolithic flaked bone tools, along with Middle and Late Pleistocene bone retouchers, led to a re-evaluation of the conception of Homo sapiens as the exclusive manufacturer of specialised bone tools. The evidence presented herein include use wear and bone residues identified on two flint scrapers as well as a sawing mark on a fallow deer tibia, not associated with butchering activities. Dated to more than 300 kya, the evidence here presented is among the earliest related to tool-assisted bone working intended for non-dietary purposes, and contributes to the debate over the recognition of bone working as a much older behaviour than previously thought. The results of this study come from the application of a combined methodological approach, comprising use wear analysis, residue analysis, and taphonomy. This approach allowed for the retrieval of both direct and indirect evidence of tool-assisted bone working, at the Lower Palaeolithic site of Qesem Cave (Israel).
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Zupancich
- Department of Archaeology, Tel-Aviv University, Institute of Archaeology, POB 39040, 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Stella Nunziante-Cesaro
- Scientific Methodologies Applied to Cultural Heritage (SMATCH), ISMN-CNR c\o Dept. of Chemistry, “Sapienza” Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Ruth Blasco
- Department of Archaeology, Tel-Aviv University, Institute of Archaeology, POB 39040, 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Centro Nacional de Investigacìon sobre la Evolucìon Humana (CENIEH), Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca 3, 09002, Burgos, Spain
| | - Jordi Rosell
- Àrea de Prehistòria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), Avinguda de Catalunya, 35, 43002, Tarragona, Spain
- IPHES; Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evoluciò Social, Campus Sescelades URV (Edifici W3), 43007, Tarragona, Spain
| | - Emanuela Cristiani
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Flavia Venditti
- Department of Classics, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Ran Barkai
- Department of Archaeology, Tel-Aviv University, Institute of Archaeology, POB 39040, 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Avi Gopher
- Department of Archaeology, Tel-Aviv University, Institute of Archaeology, POB 39040, 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel
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23
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Rougier H, Crevecoeur I, Beauval C, Posth C, Flas D, Wißing C, Furtwängler A, Germonpré M, Gómez-Olivencia A, Semal P, van der Plicht J, Bocherens H, Krause J. Neandertal cannibalism and Neandertal bones used as tools in Northern Europe. Sci Rep 2016; 6:29005. [PMID: 27381450 PMCID: PMC4933918 DOI: 10.1038/srep29005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Almost 150 years after the first identification of Neandertal skeletal material, the cognitive and symbolic abilities of these populations remain a subject of intense debate. We present 99 new Neandertal remains from the Troisième caverne of Goyet (Belgium) dated to 40,500–45,500 calBP. The remains were identified through a multidisciplinary study that combines morphometrics, taphonomy, stable isotopes, radiocarbon dating and genetic analyses. The Goyet Neandertal bones show distinctive anthropogenic modifications, which provides clear evidence for butchery activities as well as four bones having been used for retouching stone tools. In addition to being the first site to have yielded multiple Neandertal bones used as retouchers, Goyet not only provides the first unambiguous evidence of Neandertal cannibalism in Northern Europe, but also highlights considerable diversity in mortuary behaviour among the region’s late Neandertal population in the period immediately preceding their disappearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Rougier
- Department of Anthropology, California State University Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St, Northridge, CA 91330-8244, USA
| | - Isabelle Crevecoeur
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, UMR 5199-PACEA, A3P, Allée Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, CS 50023, 33615 Pessac Cedex, France
| | | | - Cosimo Posth
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Archaeo- and Palaeogenetics, University of Tübingen, Rümelinstr. 23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Khalaische Straße 10, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Damien Flas
- Laboratoire TRACES - UMR 5608, Université Toulouse Jean Jaurès, Maison de la Recherche, 5 Allée Antonio Machado, 31058 Toulouse Cedex 9, France
| | - Christoph Wißing
- Department of Geosciences, University of Tübingen, Hölderlinstr. 12, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anja Furtwängler
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Archaeo- and Palaeogenetics, University of Tübingen, Rümelinstr. 23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Mietje Germonpré
- Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, 29 Vautier St, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Asier Gómez-Olivencia
- Departmento de Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, UPV-EHU. Apdo. 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain.,IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, María Díaz de Haro 3, 48013 Bilbao, Spain.,UMR 7194 CNRS, Département de Préhistoire, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Musée de l'Homme, 17 Place du Trocadéro, 75016 Paris, France.,Centro Mixto UCM-ISCIII de Evolución y Comportamiento Humanos, Avda. Monforte de Lemos 5, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Patrick Semal
- Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, 29 Vautier St, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Johannes van der Plicht
- Centre for Isotope Research, Groningen University, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, Netherlands.,Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, PO Box 9514, 2300 RA Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Hervé Bocherens
- Department of Geosciences, University of Tübingen, Hölderlinstr. 12, 72074 Tübingen, Germany.,Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment, University of Tübingen, 72072 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Johannes Krause
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Archaeo- and Palaeogenetics, University of Tübingen, Rümelinstr. 23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Khalaische Straße 10, 07745 Jena, Germany.,Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment, University of Tübingen, 72072 Tübingen, Germany
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24
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Conard NJ, Serangeli J, Böhner U, Starkovich BM, Miller CE, Urban B, Van Kolfschoten T. Excavations at Schöningen and paradigm shifts in human evolution. J Hum Evol 2015; 89:1-17. [PMID: 26653207 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/05/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The exceptional preservation at Schöningen together with a mixture of perseverance, hard work, and sheer luck led to the recovery of unique finds in an exceptional context. The 1995 discovery of numerous wooden artifacts, most notably at least 10 carefully made spears together with the skeletons of at least 20 to 25 butchered horses, brought the debate about hunting versus scavenging among late archaic hominins and analogous arguments about the purportedly primitive behavior of Homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthals to an end. Work under H. Thieme's lead from 1992 to 2008 and results from the current team since 2008 demonstrate that late H. heidelbergensis or early Neanderthals used sophisticated artifacts made from floral and faunal materials, in addition to lithic artifacts more typically recovered at Lower Paleolithic sites. The finds from the famous Horse Butchery Site and two dozen other archaeological horizons from the edges of the open-cast mine at Schöningen provide many new insights into the technology and behavioral patterns of hominins about 300 ka BP during MIS 9 on the Northern European Plain. An analysis of the finds from Schöningen and their contexts shows that the inhabitants of the site were skilled hunters at the top of the food chain and exhibited a high level of planning depth. These hominins had command of effective means of communication about the here and now, and the past and the future, that allowed them to repeatedly execute well-coordinated and successful group activities that likely culminated in a division of labor and social and economic patterns radically different from those of all non-human primates. The unique preservation and high quality excavations have led to a major paradigm shift or "Schöningen Effect" that changed our views of human evolution during the late Lower Paleolithic. In this respect, we can view the behaviors documented at Schöningen as a plausible baseline for the behavioral sophistication of archaic hominins of the late Middle Pleistocene and subsequent periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Conard
- Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, University of Tübingen, Schloss Hohentübingen, 72070 Tübingen, Germany; Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoecology, University of Tübingen, Schloss Hohentübingen, 72070 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Jordi Serangeli
- Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology, University of Tübingen, Schloss Hohentübingen, 72070 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Utz Böhner
- Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Scharnhorststraße 1, 30175 Hannover, Germany
| | - Britt M Starkovich
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, University of Tübingen, Rümelinstr. 23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany; Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoecology, University of Tübingen, Rümelinstr. 23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany; School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA
| | - Christopher E Miller
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, University of Tübingen, Rümelinstr. 23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany; Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoecology, University of Tübingen, Rümelinstr. 23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Brigitte Urban
- Institute of Ecology, Leuphana University Lüneburg, Germany
| | - Thijs Van Kolfschoten
- Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 2, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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25
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Serangeli J, Böhner U, Van Kolfschoten T, Conard NJ. Overview and new results from large-scale excavations in Schöningen. J Hum Evol 2015; 89:27-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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26
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Starkovich BM, Conard NJ. Bone taphonomy of the Schöningen “Spear Horizon South” and its implications for site formation and hominin meat provisioning. J Hum Evol 2015; 89:154-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Revised: 06/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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27
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The Spear Horizon: First spatial analysis of the Schöningen site 13 II-4. J Hum Evol 2015; 89:202-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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28
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Rivals F, Julien MA, Kuitems M, Van Kolfschoten T, Serangeli J, Drucker DG, Bocherens H, Conard NJ. Investigation of equid paleodiet from Schöningen 13 II-4 through dental wear and isotopic analyses: Archaeological implications. J Hum Evol 2015; 89:129-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Revised: 02/22/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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29
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Characterizing the Lower Paleolithic bone industry from Schöningen 12 II: A multi-proxy study. J Hum Evol 2015; 89:264-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Revised: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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30
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Serangeli J, Van Kolfschoten T, Starkovich BM, Verheijen I. The European saber-toothed cat (Homotherium latidens) found in the “Spear Horizon” at Schöningen (Germany). J Hum Evol 2015; 89:172-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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31
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Van Kolfschoten T, Buhrs E, Verheijen I. The larger mammal fauna from the Lower Paleolithic Schöningen Spear site and its contribution to hominin subsistence. J Hum Evol 2015; 89:138-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/19/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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32
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The behavioral and cultural stratigraphic contexts of the lithic assemblages from Schöningen. J Hum Evol 2015; 89:287-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Revised: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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