Synthesis and characterization of chitosan ascorbate nanoparticles for therapeutic inhibition for cervical cancer and their in silico modeling

Eco-friendly and safe alternatives for the valorization of shrimp farming waste

The seafood industry generates waste, including shells, bones, intestines, and wastewater. The discards are nutrient-rich, containing varying concentrations of carotenoids, proteins, chitin, and other minerals. Thus, it is imperative to subject seafood waste, including shrimp waste (SW), to secondary processing and valorization for demineralization and deproteination to retrieve industrially essential compounds. Although several chemical processes are available for SW processing, most of them are inherently ecotoxic. Bioconversion of SW is cost-effective, ecofriendly, and safe. Microbial fermentation and the action of exogenous enzymes are among the significant SW bioconversion processes that transform seafood waste into valuable products. SW is a potential raw material for agrochemicals, microbial culture media, adsorbents, therapeutics, nutraceuticals, and bio-nanomaterials. This review comprehensively elucidates the valorization approaches of SW, addressing the drawbacks of chemically mediated methods for SW treatments. It is a broad overview of the applications associated with nutrient-rich SW, besides highlighting the role of major shrimp-producing countries in exploring SW to achieve safe, ecofriendly, and efficient bio-products.

Microneedle-mediated nanomedicine to enhance therapeutic and diagnostic efficacy

Nanomedicine has been extensively explored for therapeutic and diagnostic applications in recent years, owing to its numerous advantages such as controlled release, targeted delivery, and efficient protection of encapsulated agents. Integration of microneedle technologies with nanomedicine has the potential to address current limitations in nanomedicine for drug delivery including relatively low therapeutic efficacy and poor patient compliance and enable theragnostic uses. In this Review, we first summarize representative types of nanomedicine and describe their broad applications. We then outline the current challenges faced by nanomedicine, with a focus on issues related to physical barriers, biological barriers, and patient compliance. Next, we provide an overview of microneedle systems, including their definition, manufacturing strategies, drug release mechanisms, and current advantages and challenges. We also discuss the use of microneedle-mediated nanomedicine systems for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Finally, we provide a perspective on the current status and future prospects for microneedle-mediated nanomedicine for biomedical applications.

Study of the antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of chitosan and its derivatives chemically modified with phthalic anhydride and ethylenediamine

The insertion of hydrophobic and hydrophilic chains in the chitosan molecule can improve its antibacterial activity, expanding its range of application in several areas of medical-pharmaceutical sciences. Thus, this work aimed to increase the antibacterial activity of chitosan through the modification reaction with phthalic anhydride (QF) and subsequent reaction with ethylenediamine (QFE). The chitosan and derivatives obtained were characterized by elemental analysis, 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (13C NMR), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TG), where it was possible to prove the chemical modification. Both materials showed a greater antibacterial inhibitory effect against Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, emphasizing antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli, with values above 70 % of the inhibitory effect, which is a promising result. Assays with human fibroblast cells by the [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium (MTT)] bromide reduction test did not indicate toxicity in the materials. Thus, the derived materials showed promise for biomedical applications since they combined excellent antibacterial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative strains and did not show cytotoxicity.

Structure, the energy, sorption and biological properties of chiral salts of chitosan with l- and d-ascorbic acid

The influence of l- and d-ascorbic acid diastereomers on the structure, supramolecular ordering, energy, sorption and biological properties of heterochiral (D-L) and homochiral (D-D) salt complexes of chitosan (d-glucan)-acid was studied. The thermal effect of dissolving chitosan in l-ascorbic acid and the protonation degree of (D-L)-salts were lower than those in the medium of the d-isomer. Homochiral (D-D) salts, in contrast to heterochiral (D-L) ones, are distinguished by a more developed system of intermolecular and intramolecular contacts, a more ordered and equilibrium supramolecular organization of macrochains, a higher crystallinity degree, and a smaller amount of crystallization water. The sorption isotherms of chiral salts were approximated by the thermal equation of sorption and the superposition of the Langmuir and Flory-Huggins isotherms. Significant differences were found in the limiting value and energy of sorption, the constant of adsorption equilibrium, the limiting sorption capacity of the localized mode of water, and the Gibbs mixing energy. Biotesting on non-vascular (Scenedesmus quadricauda) and vascular eukaryotes (Linum usitatissimum) revealed the growth-stimulating effect of the D-D salts. The obtained results confirm our hypothesis of the homochiral salt complexes d-glucan-d-ascorbic acid best corresponding to the principles of the functional organization of biological objects.

A Review of the Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Chitosan Nanoparticles in Nanomedicine

Chitosan is a fibrous compound derived from chitin, which is the second most abundant natural polysaccharide and is produced by crustaceans, including crabs, shrimps, and lobsters. Chitosan has all of the important medicinal properties, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and hydrophilicity, and it is relatively nontoxic and cationic in nature. Chitosan nanoparticles are particularly useful due to their small size, providing a large surface-to-volume ratio, and physicochemical properties that may differ from that of their bulk counterparts; thus, chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) are widely used in biomedical applications and, particularly, as contrast agents for medical imaging and as vehicles for drug and gene delivery into tumors. Because CNPs are formed from a natural biopolymer, they can readily be functionalized with drugs, RNA, DNA, and other molecules to target a desired result in vivo. Furthermore, chitosan is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration as being Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS). This paper reviews the structural characteristics and various synthesis methods used to produce chitosan nanoparticles and nanostructures, such as ionic gelation, microemulsion, polyelectrolyte complexing, emulsification solvent diffusion, and the reverse micellar method. Various characterization techniques and analyses are also discussed. In addition, we review drug delivery applications of chitosan nanoparticles, including for ocular, oral, pulmonary, nasal, and vaginal methodologies, and applications in cancer therapy and tissue engineering.

Next-Generation 3D Scaffolds for Nano-Based Chemotherapeutics Delivery and Cancer Treatment

Cancer is the leading cause of death after cardiovascular disease. Despite significant advances in cancer research over the past few decades, it is almost impossible to cure end-stage cancer patients and bring them to remission. Adverse effects of chemotherapy are mainly caused by the accumulation of chemotherapeutic agents in normal tissues, and drug resistance hinders the potential therapeutic effects and curing of this disease. New drug formulations need to be developed to overcome these problems and increase the therapeutic index of chemotherapeutics. As a chemotherapeutic delivery platform, three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds are an up-and-coming option because they can respond to biological factors, modify their properties accordingly, and promote site-specific chemotherapeutic deliveries in a sustainable and controlled release manner. This review paper focuses on the features and applications of the variety of 3D scaffold-based nano-delivery systems that could be used to improve local cancer therapy by selectively delivering chemotherapeutics to the target sites in future.

Nanoparticles in Endodontics Disinfection: State of the Art

Endodontic-related diseases constitute the fourth most expensive pathologies in industrialized countries. Specifically, endodontics is the part of dentistry focused on treating disorders of the dental pulp and its consequences. In order to treat these problems, especially endodontic infections, dental barriers and complex root canal anatomy should be overcome. This constitutes an unmet medical need since the rate of successful disinfection with the currently marketed drugs is around 85%. Therefore, nanoparticles constitute a suitable alternative in order to deliver active compounds effectively to the target site, increasing their therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, in the present review, an overview of dental anatomy and the barriers that should be overcome for effective disinfection will be summarized. In addition, the versatility of nanoparticles for drug delivery and their specific uses in dentistry are comprehensively discussed. Finally, the latest findings, potential applications and state of the art nanoparticles with special emphasis on biodegradable nanoparticles used for endodontic disinfection are also reviewed.

Drug Delivery Systems in the Development of Novel Strategies for Glioblastoma Treatment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a grade IV glioma considered the most fatal cancer of the central nervous system (CNS), with less than a 5% survival rate after five years. The tumor heterogeneity, the high infiltrative behavior of its cells, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that limits the access of therapeutic drugs to the brain are the main reasons hampering the current standard treatment efficiency. Following the tumor resection, the infiltrative remaining GBM cells, which are resistant to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, can further invade the surrounding brain parenchyma. Consequently, the development of new strategies to treat parenchyma-infiltrating GBM cells, such as vaccines, nanotherapies, and tumor cells traps including drug delivery systems, is required. For example, the chemoattractant CXCL12, by binding to its CXCR4 receptor, activates signaling pathways that play a critical role in tumor progression and invasion, making it an interesting therapeutic target to properly control the direction of GBM cell migration for treatment proposes. Moreover, the interstitial fluid flow (IFF) is also implicated in increasing the GBM cell migration through the activation of the CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling pathway. However, due to its complex and variable nature, the influence of the IFF on the efficiency of drug delivery systems is not well understood yet. Therefore, this review discusses novel drug delivery strategies to overcome the GBM treatment limitations, focusing on chemokines such as CXCL12 as an innovative approach to reverse the migration of infiltrated GBM. Furthermore, recent developments regarding in vitro 3D culture systems aiming to mimic the dynamic peritumoral environment for the optimization of new drug delivery technologies are highlighted.

Synthesis, Controlled Release, and Stability on Storage of Chitosan-Thyme Essential Oil Nanocapsules for Food Applications

The nanoencapsulation of thyme essential oil has been greatly important in food science, given its remarkable antioxidant and antimicrobial capacity. However, its analysis in storage has not been established in terms of physical stability, antioxidant capacity, and release studies. In this paper, chitosan-thyme oil nanocapsules were prepared by the ionic gelation method. These were characterized for differential calorimetry, release kinetic, and infrared spectroscopy. The chitosan-thyme oil nanocapsules were stored at 4 and 25 °C for 5 weeks, the changes in particle size, zeta potential, stability (diffuse reflectance), and antioxidant capacity were analyzed and associated with nanocapsules' functionality. The results show that the storage time and temperature significantly modify the particle size (keeping the nano-size throughout the storage), the release of the bioactive was Fickian with t^0.193 according to Korsmery & Peppas and best described by Higuchi model associated with changes in the zeta potential from 8 mV to -11 mV at 4 °C. The differential scanning calorimetry and infrared spectroscopy results confirm the good integration of the components. The antioxidant capacity revealed a direct relationship with residual oil concentration with a decrease in the ABTS test of 15% at 4 °C and 37% at 25 °C. The residual bioactive content was 77% at 4 °C and 62% at 25 °C, confirming nanoencapsulation effectiveness. The present investigation provides helpful information so that these systems can be applied in food conservation.

Chitin and chitosan on the nanoscale

In a matter of decades, nanomaterials from biomass, exemplified by nanocellulose, have rapidly transitioned from once being a subject of curiosity to an area of fervent research and development, now reaching the stages of commercialization and industrial relevance. Nanoscale chitin and chitosan, on the other hand, have only recently begun to raise interest. Attractive features such as excellent biocompatibility, antibacterial activity, immunogenicity, as well as the tuneable handles of their acetylamide (chitin) or primary amino (chitosan) functionalities indeed display promise in areas such as biomedical devices, catalysis, therapeutics, and more. Herein, we review recent progress in the fabrication and development of these bio-nanomaterials, describe in detail their properties, and discuss the initial successes in their applications. Comparisons are made to the dominant nanocelluose to highlight some of the inherent advantages that nanochitin and nanochitosan may possess in similar application.

A Review on Green Synthesis, Characterization and Anticancer Application of Metallic Nanoparticles

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide and also the main obstacle of accelerating anticipation. It is globally recognized as overwhelmingly challenging in terms of clinical management. Cancer is taken into account because a prime lethal disease affects different organs of the body. Even with the rapid improvements in the medical sciences, there are no proper medicines to treat specific kinds of cancer. One of the fundamental issues within the malignant growth treatment is the side effect because of conventional treatment systems. Nanotechnology might be an extremely encouraging field for the therapeutic and drug areas; thus, it assumes a crucial part in improving humankind's satisfaction. In the infield of nanotechnology, a plant-mediated fusion of metal nanoparticles has been developed as a substitute to defeat the limitations of traditional synthesis approaches similar to physical and synthetic strategies. These tunable properties of nanomaterials make them progressed apparatuses in the biomedical platform particularly for the improvement of new diagnostics and focused on therapeutics for malignancy.This review incorporates the characterization of nanoparticles with size and shape and features critical uses of biosynthesized green nanomaterials in cancer theranostics.

In Silico and In Vitro Tailoring of a Chitosan Nanoformulation of a Human Metabolic Enzyme

Enzyme nanoencapsulation holds an enormous potential to develop new therapeutic approaches to a large set of human pathologies including cancer, infectious diseases and inherited metabolic disorders. However, enzyme formulation has been limited by the need to maintain the catalytic function, which is governed by protein conformation. Herein we report the rational design of a delivery system based on chitosan for effective encapsulation of a functionally and structurally complex human metabolic enzyme through ionic gelation with tripolyphosphate. The rationale was to use a mild methodology to entrap the multimeric multidomain 200 kDa human phenylalanine hydroxylase (hPAH) in a polyol-like matrix that would allow an efficient maintenance of protein structure and function, avoiding formulation stress conditions. Through an in silico and in vitro based development, the particulate system was optimized with modulation of nanomaterials protonation status, polymer, counterion and protein ratios, taking into account particle size, polydispersity index, surface charge, particle yield production, protein free energy of folding, electrostatic surface potential, charge, encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity and transmission electron microscopy morphology. Evaluation of the thermal stability, substrate binding profile, relative enzymatic activity, and substrate activation ratio of the encapsulated hPAH suggests that the formulation procedure does not affect protein stability, allowing an effective maintenance of hPAH biological function. Hence, this study provides an important framework for an enzyme formulation process.

Recent Advancements in Stimuli Responsive Drug Delivery Platforms for Active and Passive Cancer Targeting

The tumor-specific targeting of chemotherapeutic agents for specific necrosis of cancer cells without affecting the normal cells poses a great challenge for researchers and scientists. Though extensive research has been carried out to investigate chemotherapy-based targeted drug delivery, the identification of the most promising strategy capable of bypassing non-specific cytotoxicity is still a major concern. Recent advancements in the arena of onco-targeted therapies have enabled safe and effective tumor-specific localization through stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems. Owing to their promising characteristic features, stimuli-responsive drug delivery platforms have revolutionized the chemotherapy-based treatments with added benefits of enhanced bioavailability and selective cytotoxicity of cancer cells compared to the conventional modalities. The insensitivity of stimuli-responsive drug delivery platforms when exposed to normal cells prevents the release of cytotoxic drugs into the normal cells and therefore alleviates the off-target events associated with chemotherapy. Contrastingly, they showed amplified sensitivity and triggered release of chemotherapeutic payload when internalized into the tumor microenvironment causing maximum cytotoxic responses and the induction of cancer cell necrosis. This review focuses on the physical stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems and chemical stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems for triggered cancer chemotherapy through active and/or passive targeting. Moreover, the review also provided a brief insight into the molecular dynamic simulations associated with stimuli-based tumor targeting.

Thiolated polymer nanocarrier reinforced with glycyrrhetinic acid for targeted delivery of 5-fluorouracil in hepatocellular carcinoma

The present work investigates the targeting efficacy of a novel thiolated polymer-based nanocomposite reinforced with glycyrrhetinic acid (GA) and loaded with 5-fluorouracil in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The thiolated polymers were synthesized by EDAC-mediated conjugation reactions and lyophilization. The nanoparticles were prepared by solvent diffusion and high-pressure homogenization method. The prepared nanocomposite was characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) radiation, x-ray diffraction (XRD), dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) techniques. Pharmacological evaluation of the formulation was carried out on a rat model of diethylnitrosamine (DEN), and carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced HCC and MTT assay was carried out with HEP-G2 cell line. In silico studies were conducted to investigate the probable mechanistic pathway of the nanocomposite. FTIR and XRD analysis indicated the successful thiolation of the polymers and confirmed the formation of the nanocomposite without any incompatibilities. DLS, SEM/EDX and AFM characterization confirmed that the nanoparticles were within the nano-size range. MTT assay implied the cytotoxic nature of the nanocomposite against hepatic carcinoma cells. The in vivo study revealed that serum SGOT, SGPT, ALP, GGT and total bilirubin levels were significantly reduced, in comparison with disease control and the result was confirmed by histopathology studies. The results of the HPLC analysis of liver homogenate confirmed the liver targeting ability of the nanocomposite. In silico studies exhibited significant binding affinity of GA and thiolated Eudragit towards liver homolog receptor-1 (LRH-1) suggesting that the developed nanocomposite could be a potential material for the treatment of HCC.

Natural Ingredient-Based Polymeric Nanoparticles for Cancer Treatment

Cancer is a global health challenge. There are drawbacks to conventional chemotherapy such as poor bioavailability, development of drug resistance and severe side effects. Novel drug delivery system may be an alternative to optimize therapeutic effects. When such systems consist of natural materials, they offer important advantages: they are usually highly biocompatible, biodegradable, nontoxic and nonimmunogenic. Furthermore, natural materials can be easily modified for conjugation with a wide range of therapeutic agents and targeting ligands, according to the therapeutic purpose. This article reviews different natural ingredients and their applications in drug delivery systems for cancer therapy. Firstly, an overview of the polysaccharides and protein-based polymers that have been extensively investigated for drug delivery are described. Secondly, recent advances in using various natural ingredient-based polymeric nanoparticles for cancer therapy are reviewed. The characteristics of these delivery systems are summarized, followed by a discussion of future development and clinical potential. This review aims to summarize current knowledge and provide a basis for developing effective tailor-made formulations for cancer therapy in the future.

Chitosan Anchored Nanoparticles in Current Drug Development Utilizing Computer-Aided Pharmacokinetic Modeling: Case Studies for Target Specific Cancer Treatment and Future Prospective

Background:

Recently, in the medical and pharmaceutical fields, biopolymers are extensively used for chemical and mechanical modifications of pharmaceutical dosage forms, which add novel properties, functions, and applications. Structural modification of dosage form by polymers along with redesigning in pharmaceutical and tissue engineering fields, presently being the center of analysis for the modern research world, which utilizes the subtle instruments, precise research strategies and most significantly the excipients.

Method:

Recently, in the medical and pharmaceutical fields, biopolymers are extensively used for chemical and mechanical modifications of pharmaceutical dosage forms, which add novel properties, functions, and applications. Structural modification of dosage form by polymers along with redesigning in pharmaceutical and tissue engineering fields, presently being the center of analysis for the modern research world, which utilizes the subtle instruments, precise research strategies and most significantly the excipients.

Results:

The most remarkable point is that chitosan-drug conjugated nanoparticles (CDNP) can target cancer affected cells with the least attempt to killing the neighbor host cell. It is already proved that the CDNP facilitate the more drugs uptaking or cytotoxicity to a cancerous cell. This overcomes the dosage form designing problems of complexity in the biological mechanism and cell specificity. A computer-aided pharmacokinetic study as well as in-silico design with model fitting can provide the possible finding related to target selectivity and interaction. The computer aided study also reduces time and could make the entire process much cheaper till today, very few research has been reported, such as PyRx with AutoDock, response surface methodology and molecular dynamic simulation in drug delivery for chitosan-drug conjugated nanoparticles.

Conclusion:

Therefore, cancer cell target-specific drug delivery using a natural biopolymer conjugate with a computer-aided pharmacokinetic model will be the thirst area of future research. To get successful anticancer drug formulation, in-silico pharmacokinetic modeling would minimize labor, and expenses, during and prior to the experiment has been extensively discussed in the present review.

A Green Enzymatic Extraction Optimization and Oxidative Stability of Krill Oil from Euphausia Superba

Krill oil enriched with polyunsaturated fatty acids is in the form of phospholipid. However, its application as a dietary supplement is limited, because of its rapid deterioration. Thus, this study aims to investigate the oxidative stability of krill oil extracted from Euphausia superba. Under optimal conditions (enzyme concentration 0.16%, enzymolysis time 2.9 h, and enzymolysis temperature of 45 °C) designed by response surface methodology, the extraction yield of krill oil is 86.02%. Five assays, including peroxide value (POV), thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), pH value, and turbidity were used to determine the oxidative stability of krill oil nanoliposomes during storage. Carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) nanoliposomes showed a significant reduction in POV and TBARS values, a prevention of pH value decrease and turbidity increase. This study indicated that CMCS nanoliposome can effectively improve the oxidative stability of krill oil during storage. Furthermore, the release profile in vitro illustrated that the controlled release of krill oil carried out by CMCS nanoliposomes is feasible.

Preparation and physicochemical properties of antioxidant chitosan ascorbate/methylcellulose composite films

Polysaccharide-based biodegradable films have been considered as the promising candidates for food packaging industry instead of petroleum-based packaging materials. Here, we reported a class of edible composite films based on chitosan ascorbate and methylcellulose prepared by mixing different ratios (1,0, 4:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, and 0:1) of the biopolymers using the casting technique. Their physicochemical properties as well as the DPPH radical scavenging ability and reducing power were investigated. All physicochemical properties and antioxidant activities were significantly affected by the chitosan ascorbate/methylcellulose ratio in the matrix. The increases in tensile strength and elongation at break values, maximum decomposition temperatures, whitish index, compactness, moisture content, and a reduction in water vapor permeability were observed as the proportion of methylcellulose increased in the matrix. But the composite films containing a greater proportion of chitosan ascorbate exhibited the better barrier properties against UV-vis light and the stronger DPPH radical scavenging effect and reducing power. The chitosan ascorbate/methylcellulose composite films with interesting physicochemical properties and strong antioxidant action showed the potential value as biodegradable and edible biomaterials for food packaging.

Current Advances in Chitosan Nanoparticles Based Drug Delivery and Targeting

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been found to be potential targeted and controlled release drug delivery systems. Various drugs can be loaded in the NPs to achieve targeted delivery. Chitosan NPs being biodegradable, biocompatible, less toxic and easy to prepare, are an effective and potential tool for drug delivery. Chitosan is natural biopolymer which can be easily functionalized to obtain the desired targeted results and is also approved by GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration [US FDA]). Various methods for preparation of chitosan NPs include, ionic cross-linking, covalent cross-linking, reverse micellar method, precipitation and emulsion-droplet coalescence method. Chitosan NPs are found to have plethora of applications in drug delivery diagnosis and other biological applications. The key applications include ocular drug delivery, per-oral delivery, pulmonary drug delivery, nasal drug delivery, mucosal drug delivery, gene delivery, buccal drug delivery, vaccine delivery, vaginal drug delivery and cancer therapy. The present review describes the formation of chitosan, synthesis of chitosan NPs and their various applications in drug delivery.

Fungal enzyme-mediated synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles and its biocompatibility, antioxidant and bactericidal properties

This paper reports the synthesis of chitosan nanoparticles (T-CSNPs) using the fungal enzyme of Trichoderma harzianum and its biocompatibility, antioxidant and bactericidal properties. The T-CSNPs synthesis was confirmed by absorbance at 280 nm using UV-Vis spectrophotometer. T-CSNPs were of spherical shape, as evident by field emission transmission electron microscopic (FETEM) analysis, and the average size of T-CSNPs was 90.8 nm, as calculated using particle size analyzer (PSA). The functional groups showed modifications of chitosan in T-CSNPs as evident by fourier-transform infrared spectroscopic (FTIR) analysis. T-CSNPs were found soluble at the wide range of pH, showing 100% solubility at pH 1-3 and 72% at pH 10. The T-CSNPs exhibited antioxidant property in a dose-dependent manner with pronounced activity at 100 mg·mL^-1. The T-CSNPs also showed bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica Typhimurium by causing detrimental effects on bacterial cells. The T-CSNPs (50 μg·mL^-1) did not display any cytotoxic effect on murine fibroblast NIH-3T3 cells, as evident by cell viability and acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining assays, which confirmed biocompatibility of the nanoparticles. This work suggested further investigations on the utilization of the mycosynthesized nanochitosan in biomedical applications.

Approaches in Polymeric Nanoparticles for Vaginal Drug Delivery: A Review of the State of the Art

The vagina is a region of administration with a high contact surface to obtain local or systemic effects. This anatomical area represents special interest for government health systems for different sexually transmitted infections. However, the chemical changes of the vagina, as well as its abundant mucus in continuous exchange, act as a barrier and a challenge for the development of new drugs. For these purposes, the development of new pharmaceutical forms based on nanoparticles has been shown to offer various advantages, such as bioadhesion, easy penetration of the mucosa, and controlled release, in addition to decreasing the adverse effects of conventional pharmaceutical forms. In order to obtain nanoparticles for vaginal administration, the use of polymers of natural and synthetic origin including biodegradable and non-biodegradable systems have gained great interest both in nanospheres and in nanocapsules. The main aim of this review is to provide an overview of the development of nanotechnology for vaginal drug release, analyzing the different compositions of polymeric nanoparticles, and emphasizing new trends in each of the sections presented. At the end of this review, a section analyzes the properties of the vehicles employed for the administration of nanoparticles and discusses how to take advantage of the properties that they offer. This review aims to be a reference guide for new formulators interested in the vaginal route.