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Biemond M, Vremec D, Gray DHD, Hodgkin PD, Heinzel S. Programmed death receptor 1 (PD-1) ligand Fc fusion proteins reduce T-cell proliferation in vitro independently of PD-1. Immunol Cell Biol 2024; 102:117-130. [PMID: 38069638 PMCID: PMC10952853 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Programmed death receptor 1 (PD-1) is an inhibitory receptor on T cells shown to restrain T-cell proliferation. PD-1 immune checkpoint blockade has emerged as a highly promising approach in cancer treatment. Much of our understanding of the function of PD-1 is derived from in vitro T-cell activation assays. Here we set out to further investigate how T cells integrate inhibitory signals such as PD-1 in vitro using the PD-1 agonist, PD-1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) fusion protein (PD-L1.Fc), coimmobilized alongside anti-CD3 agonist monoclonal antibody (mAb) on plates to deliver PD-1 signals to wild-type and PD-1-/- CD8+ T cells. Surprisingly, we found that the PD-L1.Fc fusion protein inhibited T-cell proliferation independently of PD-1. This PD-L1.Fc inhibition was observed in the presence and absence of CD28 and interleukin-2 signaling. Binding of PD-L1.Fc was restricted to PD-1-expressing T cells and thus inhibition was not mediated by the interaction of PD-L1.Fc with CD80 or other yet unknown binding partners. Furthermore, a similar PD-1-independent reduction of T-cell proliferation was observed with plate-bound PD-L2.Fc. Hence, our results suggest that the coimmobilization of PD-1 ligand fusion proteins with anti-CD3 mAb leads to a reduction of T-cell engagement with plate-bound anti-CD3 mAb. This study demonstrates a nonspecific mechanism of T-cell inhibition when PD-L1.Fc or PD-L2.Fc fusion proteins are delivered in a plate-bound coimmobilization assay and highlights the importance of careful optimization of assay systems and reagents when interpreting their influence on T-cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Biemond
- Immunology DivisionWalter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchParkvilleVICAustralia
- Department of Medical BiologyThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVICAustralia
- Present address:
Department of ImmunologyLeiden University Medical CenterLeidenThe Netherlands
| | - David Vremec
- Immunology DivisionWalter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchParkvilleVICAustralia
| | - Daniel HD Gray
- Immunology DivisionWalter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchParkvilleVICAustralia
- Department of Medical BiologyThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVICAustralia
| | - Philip D Hodgkin
- Immunology DivisionWalter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchParkvilleVICAustralia
- Department of Medical BiologyThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVICAustralia
| | - Susanne Heinzel
- Immunology DivisionWalter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical ResearchParkvilleVICAustralia
- Department of Medical BiologyThe University of MelbourneParkvilleVICAustralia
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Kosmides AK, Necochea K, Hickey JW, Schneck JP. Separating T Cell Targeting Components onto Magnetically Clustered Nanoparticles Boosts Activation. NANO LETTERS 2018; 18:1916-1924. [PMID: 29488768 PMCID: PMC6707078 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.7b05284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
T cell activation requires the coordination of a variety of signaling molecules including T cell receptor-specific signals and costimulatory signals. Altering the composition and distribution of costimulatory molecules during stimulation greatly affects T cell functionality for applications such as adoptive cell therapy (ACT), but the large diversity in these molecules complicates these studies. Here, we develop and validate a reductionist T cell activation platform that enables streamlined customization of stimulatory conditions. This platform is useful for the optimization of ACT protocols as well as the more general study of immune T cell activation. Rather than decorating particles with both signal 1 antigen and signal 2 costimulus, we use distinct, monospecific, paramagnetic nanoparticles, which are then clustered on the cell surface by a magnetic field. This allows for rapid synthesis and characterization of a small number of single-signal nanoparticles which can be systematically combined to explore and optimize T cell activation. By increasing cognate T cell enrichment and incorporating additional costimulatory molecules using this platform, we find significantly higher frequencies and numbers of cognate T cells stimulated from an endogenous population. The magnetic field-induced association of separate particles thus provides a tool for optimizing T cell activation for adoptive immunotherapy and other immunological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa K. Kosmides
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
| | - Kevin Necochea
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
| | - John W. Hickey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
| | - Jonathan P. Schneck
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21231, United States
- Corresponding Author:
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3
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Jutz S, Hennig A, Paster W, Asrak Ö, Dijanovic D, Kellner F, Pickl WF, Huppa JB, Leitner J, Steinberger P. A cellular platform for the evaluation of immune checkpoint molecules. Oncotarget 2017; 8:64892-64906. [PMID: 29029399 PMCID: PMC5630299 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Blockade of the T cell coinhibitory molecules CTLA-4 and PD-1 has clinical utility to strengthen T cell responses. In addition to these immune checkpoints an ever-growing number of molecules has been implicated in generating coinhibitory signals in T cells. However, investigating coinhibitory molecules in primary human cells is complicated by the restricted expression and promiscuity of both coinhibitory receptors and their ligands. Here we have evaluated the potential of fluorescence-based transcriptional reporters based on the human Jurkat T cell line in conjunction with engineered T cell stimulator cell lines for investigating coinhibitory pathways. CTLA-4, PD-1, TIGIT, BTLA and 2B4 expressing reporter cells were generated and activated with T cell stimulator cells expressing cognate ligands of these molecules. All accessory molecules tested were functional in our reporter system. Engagement of CTLA-4, PD-1, BTLA and TIGIT by their ligands significantly inhibited T cell activation, whereas binding of 2B4 by CD48 resulted in enhanced responses. Mutational analysis revealed intracellular motifs that are responsible for BTLA mediated T cell inhibition and demonstrates potent reporter inhibition by CTLA-4 independent of cytoplasmic signaling motifs. Moreover, considerably higher IC50 values were measured for the CTLA-4 blocker Ipilimumab compared to the PD-1 antibody Nivolumab. Our findings show that coinhibitory pathways can be evaluated in Jurkat-based transcriptional reporters and yield novel insights on their function. Results obtained from this robust reductionist system can complement more time consuming and complex studies of such pathways in primary T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Jutz
- Division of Immune Receptors and T cell Activation, Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Annika Hennig
- Division of Immune Receptors and T cell Activation, Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Paster
- Division of Immune Receptors and T cell Activation, Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ömer Asrak
- Division of Immune Receptors and T cell Activation, Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dejana Dijanovic
- Division of Immune Receptors and T cell Activation, Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Florian Kellner
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Immune Recognition Unit, Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Winfried F Pickl
- Division of Cellular Immunology and Immunohematology, Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes B Huppa
- Department of Molecular Immunology, Immune Recognition Unit, Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Judith Leitner
- Division of Immune Receptors and T cell Activation, Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Steinberger
- Division of Immune Receptors and T cell Activation, Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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4
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Fuertes Marraco SA, Neubert NJ, Verdeil G, Speiser DE. Inhibitory Receptors Beyond T Cell Exhaustion. Front Immunol 2015; 6:310. [PMID: 26167163 PMCID: PMC4481276 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibitory receptors (iRs) are frequently associated with "T cell exhaustion". However, the expression of iRs is also dependent on T cell differentiation and activation. Therapeutic blockade of various iRs, also referred to as "checkpoint blockade", is showing -unprecedented results in the treatment of cancer patients. Consequently, the clinical potential in this field is broad, calling for increased research efforts and rapid refinements in the understanding of iR function. In this review, we provide an overview on the significance of iR expression for the interpretation of T cell functionality. We summarize how iRs have been strongly associated with "T cell exhaustion" and illustrate the parallel evidence on the importance of T cell differentiation and activation for the expression of iRs. The differentiation subsets of CD8 T cells (naïve, effector, and memory cells) show broad and inherent differences in iR expression, while activation leads to strong upregulation of iRs. Therefore, changes in iR expression during an immune response are often concomitant with T cell differentiation and activation. Sustained expression of iRs in chronic infection and in the tumor microenvironment likely reflects a specialized T cell differentiation. In these situations of prolonged antigen exposure and chronic inflammation, T cells are "downtuned" in order to limit tissue damage. Furthermore, we review the novel "checkpoint blockade" treatments and the potential of iRs as biomarkers. Finally, we provide recommendations for the immune monitoring of patients to interpret iR expression data combined with parameters of activation and differentiation of T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia A. Fuertes Marraco
- Ludwig Cancer Research Center, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Oncology, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Natalie J. Neubert
- Ludwig Cancer Research Center, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Oncology, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Grégory Verdeil
- Ludwig Cancer Research Center, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Oncology, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel E. Speiser
- Ludwig Cancer Research Center, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Oncology, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
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5
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Perica K, Kosmides AK, Schneck JP. Linking form to function: Biophysical aspects of artificial antigen presenting cell design. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2015; 1853:781-90. [PMID: 25200637 PMCID: PMC4344884 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2014.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Revised: 08/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Artificial antigen presenting cells (aAPCs) are engineered platforms for T cell activation and expansion, synthesized by coupling T cell activating proteins to the surface of cell lines or biocompatible particles. They can serve both as model systems to study the basic aspects of T cell signaling and translationally as novel approaches for either active or adoptive immunotherapy. Historically, these reductionist systems have not been designed to mimic the temporally and spatially complex interactions observed during endogenous T cell-APC contact, which include receptor organization at both micro- and nanoscales and dynamic changes in cell and membrane morphologies. Here, we review how particle size and shape, as well as heterogenous distribution of T cell activating proteins on the particle surface, are critical aspects of aAPC design. In doing so, we demonstrate how insights derived from endogenous T cell activation can be applied to optimize aAPC, and in turn how aAPC platforms can be used to better understand endogenous T cell stimulation. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Nanoscale membrane organisation and signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlo Perica
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Institute of Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alyssa K Kosmides
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Institute of Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jonathan P Schneck
- Institute of Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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6
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Walker LSK, Sansom DM. Confusing signals: recent progress in CTLA-4 biology. Trends Immunol 2015; 36:63-70. [PMID: 25582039 PMCID: PMC4323153 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Revised: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cell extrinsic and cell intrinsic mechanisms of action of CTLA-4 are unclear. Data suggest that the extracellular domain of CTLA4 elicits regulatory function. The function of CTLA-4 tail may lie in regulating localization rather than signaling. Membrane levels of CTLA-4 directly impact access of CD28 to shared ligands.
The mechanism of action of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) remains surprisingly unclear. Regulatory T (Treg) cells can use CTLA-4 to elicit suppression; however, CTLA-4 also operates in conventional T cells, reputedly by triggering inhibitory signals. Recently, interactions mediated via the CTLA-4 cytoplasmic domain have been shown to preferentially affect Treg cells, yet other evidence suggests that the extracellular domain of CTLA-4 is sufficient to elicit suppression. Here, we discuss these paradoxical findings in the context of CTLA-4-mediated ligand regulation. We propose that the function of CTLA-4 cytoplasmic domain is not to transmit inhibitory signals but to precisely control the turnover, cellular location, and membrane delivery of CTLA-4 to facilitate its central function: regulating the access of CD28 to their shared ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy S K Walker
- Institute for Immunity & Transplantation, University College London Division of Infection & Immunity, Royal Free Campus, London, NW3 2PF, UK.
| | - David M Sansom
- Institute for Immunity & Transplantation, University College London Division of Infection & Immunity, Royal Free Campus, London, NW3 2PF, UK.
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7
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van der Weijden J, Paulis LE, Verdoes M, van Hest JCM, Figdor CG. The right touch: design of artificial antigen-presenting cells to stimulate the immune system. Chem Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4sc01112k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
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8
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Legat A, Speiser DE, Pircher H, Zehn D, Fuertes Marraco SA. Inhibitory Receptor Expression Depends More Dominantly on Differentiation and Activation than "Exhaustion" of Human CD8 T Cells. Front Immunol 2013; 4:455. [PMID: 24391639 PMCID: PMC3867683 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2013.00455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 11/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Under conditions of chronic antigen stimulation, such as persistent viral infection and cancer, CD8 T cells may diminish effector function, which has been termed "exhaustion." Expression of inhibitory Receptors (iRs) is often regarded as a hallmark of "exhaustion." Here we studied the expression of eight different iRs by CD8 T cells of healthy humans, including CTLA-4, PD1, TIM3, LAG3, 2B4, BTLA, CD160, and KLRG1. We show that many iRs are expressed upon activation, and with progressive differentiation to effector cells, even in absence of long-term ("chronic") antigenic stimulation. In particular, we evaluated the direct relationship between iR expression and functionality in CD8 T cells by using anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 stimulation to stimulate all cells and differentiation subsets. We observed a striking up-regulation of certain iRs following the cytokine production wave, in agreement with the notion that iRs function as a negative feedback mechanism. Intriguingly, we found no major impairment of cytokine production in cells positive for a broad array of iRs, as previously shown for PD1 in healthy donors. Rather, the expression of the various iRs strongly correlated with T cell differentiation or activation states, or both. Furthermore, we analyzed CD8 T cells from lymph nodes (LNs) of melanoma patients. Interestingly, we found altered iR expression and lower cytokine production by T cells from metastatic LNs, but also from non-metastatic LNs, likely due to mechanisms which are not related to exhaustion. Together, our data shows that expression of iRs per se does not mark dysfunctional cells, but is rather tightly linked to activation and differentiation. This study highlights the importance of considering the status of activation and differentiation for the study and the clinical monitoring of CD8 T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Legat
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Daniel E Speiser
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Hanspeter Pircher
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Freiburg , Freiburg , Germany
| | - Dietmar Zehn
- Swiss Vaccine Research Institute (SVRI) , Epalinges , Switzerland ; Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Silvia A Fuertes Marraco
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Department of Oncology, Ludwig Center for Cancer Research, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV) , Lausanne , Switzerland
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9
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Sunshine JC, Green JJ. Nanoengineering approaches to the design of artificial antigen-presenting cells. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2013; 8:1173-89. [PMID: 23837856 PMCID: PMC3951141 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.13.98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Artificial antigen-presenting cells (aAPCs) have shown great initial promise for ex vivo activation of cytotoxic T cells. The development of aAPCs has focused mainly on the choice of proteins to use for surface presentation to T cells when conjugated to various spherical, microscale particles. We review here biomimetic nanoengineering approaches that have been applied to the development of aAPCs that move beyond initial concepts about aAPC development. This article also discusses key technologies that may be enabling for the development of nano- and micro-scale aAPCs with nanoscale features, and suggests several future directions for the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel C Sunshine
- Department of Biomedical Engineering & the Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
| | - Jordan J Green
- Department of Biomedical Engineering & the Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
- Wilmer Eye Institute & the Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
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10
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Paulis LE, Mandal S, Kreutz M, Figdor CG. Dendritic cell-based nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy. Curr Opin Immunol 2013; 25:389-95. [PMID: 23571027 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Revised: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy critically relies on the efficient presentation of tumor antigens to T-cells to elicit a potent anti-tumor immune response aimed at life-long protection against cancer recurrence. Recent advances in the nanovaccine field have now resulted in formulations that trigger strong anti-tumor responses. Nanovaccines are assemblies that are able to present tumor antigens and appropriate immune-stimulatory signals either directly to T-cells or indirectly via antigen-presenting dendritic cells. This review focuses on important aspects of nanovaccine design for dendritic cells, including the synergistic and cytosolic delivery of immunogenic compounds, as well as their passive and active targeting to dendritic cells. In addition, nanoparticles for direct T-cell activation are discussed, addressing features necessary to effectively mimic dendritic cell/T-cell interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie E Paulis
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Center for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
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