Inhibitory effects of decavanadate on several enzymes and Leishmania tarentolae in vitro

Evaluating the Leishmania tarentolae response to inorganic strontium-based oxyfluorides

The increasing global prevalence of the parasitic vector-borne disease leishmaniasis combined with rising resistance to current therapeutics necessitates the search for novel approaches to combat leishmania. This study evaluates the effects of novel strontium-based oxyfluorides for potential therapeutic use by testing cultures of Leishmania tarentolae, a species of Leishmania found in reptiles, as a model species. Cells were cultured with a range of mixed metal strontium oxyfluoride compounds selected to systematically test the relationship between compound structure and cell viability and enzyme activity over time.

Ultrastructural alterations due to sodium metavanadate treatment in the blood stages of Plasmodium yoelii yoelii

Malaria is a potentially mortal disease caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium spp. It has a wide distribution in the world and unfortunately there are several factors that make its control difficult; among which the development of pharmacological resistance to the different drugs used to treat this disease stands out, which makes it necessary to design new compounds that have an antimalarial effect. Previous studies have shown that vanadium has a broad antiparasitic spectrum and is also safe for the host, so the objective of this research was to evaluate the antimalarial potential of sodium metavanadate (SM) and to analyze the ultrastructural changes in parasites exposed. The method consisted of inoculating CD-1 male mice with Plasmodium yoelii yoelii and administering a 10 mg/kg/day dose of SM orally for 4 days. On the fifth day, whole blood samples were obtained, processed for ultrastructural analysis, and the changes in the different parasite stages were compared against the control. Our results showed that SM decreased parasitemia compared to the group that did not receive treatment and modified the ultrastructure in all parasitic stages because it damaged the membranes, causing alterations mainly in the nucleus and in the mitochondria as well as the loss of cellular organization, which could affect the integrity of these parasites and decrease its viability.

Vanadium compounds as antiparasitic agents: An approach to their mechanisms of action

BACKGROUND

Parasitic infections are a public health problem since they have high morbidity and mortality worldwide. In parasitosis such as malaria, leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis it is necessary to develop new compounds for their treatment since an increase in drug resistance and toxic effects have been observed. Therefore, the use of different compounds that couple vanadium in their structure and that have a broad spectrum against different parasites have been proposed experimentally.

OBJECTIVE

Report the mechanisms of action exerted by vanadium in different parasites.

CONCLUSION

In this review, some of the targets that vanadium compounds have were identified and it was observed that they have a broad spectrum against different parasites, which represents an advance to continue investigating therapeutic options.

Comprehensive Insights into Medicinal Research on Imidazole-Based Supramolecular Complexes

The electron-rich five-membered aromatic aza-heterocyclic imidazole, which contains two nitrogen atoms, is an important functional fragment widely present in a large number of biomolecules and medicinal drugs; its unique structure is beneficial to easily bind with various inorganic or organic ions and molecules through noncovalent interactions to form a variety of supramolecular complexes with broad medicinal potential, which is being paid an increasing amount of attention regarding more and more contributions to imidazole-based supramolecular complexes for possible medicinal application. This work gives systematical and comprehensive insights into medicinal research on imidazole-based supramolecular complexes, including anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, antiparasitic, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and anti-inflammatory aspects as well as ion receptors, imaging agents, and pathologic probes. The new trend of the foreseeable research in the near future toward imidazole-based supramolecular medicinal chemistry is also prospected. It is hoped that this work provides beneficial help for the rational design of imidazole-based drug molecules and supramolecular medicinal agents and more effective diagnostic agents and pathological probes.

Pascoite Minerals and Potential Application of NMR Spectroscopy

The 20 minerals encompassing the pascoite family of decavanadate isopolyanion-containing [V10O28]6− minerals include a few minerals, such as rakovanite, that have been described as containing a protonated decavanadate anion. Rakovanite was originally assigned the formula Na3[H3V10O28]•15H2O and now is redefined with an ideal formula (NH4)3Na3[V10O28]•12H2O. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and particularly 51V NMR spectroscopy is an informative method used to describe the protonation state and speciation in both solid and solution states of materials in the chemical and life sciences. However, 51V NMR spectroscopy has not yet been used experimentally to distinguish the protonation state of the decavanadate ion of leaching solutions and thus contributing to the discussion regarding the controversial protonation states of decavanadate ions in gunterite, rakovanite, and nashite. In contrast, the morphology and crystal structure for apatites, vanadinite, pyromorphite, and mimetite was related to 207Pb NMR chemical shifts, assisting in describing the local environments of these minerals. NMR spectroscopy could be a useful method if used in the future for decavanadate-containing minerals. Currently, partial reduction of two Pascoite minerals (caseyite and nashite) is proposed and accordingly could now effectively be investigated using a different magnetic resonance technique, EPR spectroscopy.

(NH4)2[Co(H2O)6]2V10O28·4H2O Vs. (NH4)2[Ni(H2O)6]2V10O28·4H2O: Structural, Spectral and Thermal Analyses and Evaluation of Their Antibacterial Activities

This paper presents the synthesis of two cluster compounds {(NH4)2[Co(H2O)6]2V10O28·4H2O (C1) and (NH4)2[Ni(H2O)6]2V10O28·4H2O (C2)} which were obtained as single crystals suitable for XRD analysis that revealed their crystallization in the monoclinic (C2/c) and triclinic (P-1) space groups, respectively. Additionally, C1 and C2 were characterized using CHN analysis and FT-IR spectroscopy and their thermal decomposition mechanisms were investigated. The antibacterial activities of both compounds were determined against three human pathogenic bacterial strains {Bacillus cereus ATCC 33,018, Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027} and one phytopathogenic bacterial strain {Ralstonia solanacearum}, while drug standards {chloramphenicol and streptomycin} were used as control. The inhibitory activity and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of the tested compounds clearly indicated higher antibacterial activities of the nickel compound against B. cereus ATCC 33,018, E. coli O157 and R. solanacearum with MIC values of 3.150, 3.150 and 6.300 mg/ml, respectively. On the other hand, (NH4)2[Co(H2O)6]2V10O28·4H2O exhibited higher antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa ATCC 9027 (MIC value of 6.300 mg/ml) in comparison to the nickel analog. In general, the measured activities are lower than that obtained for the standards except for the higher activity given by C2 in comparison to streptomycin against the R. solanacearum strain.

Polyoxometalates for bifunctional applications: Catalytic dye degradation and anticancer activity

Improving the efficiencies of organic compound degradations by catalytic materials is a challenging materials research field. In our research, we successfully synthesized cobalt-based polyoxometalates (CoV-POMs) via a simple crystallization-driven self-assembly method. The incorporation of the newly synthesized CoV-POMs into peroxymonosulphate (PMS), forming a mixture, greatly enhancing the catalytic activation for a complete degradation of dye solution. The positive synergic effect between CoV-POMs and PMS was substantiated by a relatively meager degradation of less than 10% in the system without CoV-POMs, in which CoV-POMs played a vital role to activate PMS towards free radicals generation for dye degradation. Methylene blue (MB) and rhodamine B (RB) dyes were completely decolorized under 60 min with the presence of 40 mg/L CoV-POMs and 150 mg/L PMS. The CoV-POMs/PMS system was pH dependance with a lower dye degradation efficiency at elevated pH. The effect of pH was more prominent in RB dye, in which the degradation efficiency dropped drastically from 93.3% to 41.12% with the increase in the solution pH from 7 to 11. The quenching tests suggested that sulfate radicals were the dominant active species involving in the dye degradation reaction. Besides MB and RB dyes, CoV-POMs/PMS system also showed significant activity towards the degradation of phenol red (PR) and methyl orange (MO) dyes. In the biological test, CoV-POMs exhibited non-toxic behavior towards normal cells that reduced safety concern for the large-scale wastewater treatment application. In addition, the testing divulged the anticancer property of CoV-POMs with more than 35 % of A549 lung adenocarcinoma and MDA-MB-231 breast adenocarcinoma were killed with 250 mg/L CoV-POMs. The selective lethality of CoV-POMs towards cancer cells was found to be caused by different extents of cellular apoptosis. In overall, the synthesized bifunctional CoV-POMs manifested superior activities in the examined applications, specifically dye degradation and anticancer.

Leishmania tarentolae novel responses to Bi3+-doped strontium aluminum oxyfluorides

Novel therapeutics for the treatment of leishmaniasis are of interest as the disease not only is becoming more prevalent, but drug resistance is increasing in certain regions of the world. Reported here is the use of Bi3+-doped strontium aluminum oxyfluoride phosphors and protease inhibitors to test in vitro inhibitory activity against cultured promastigote Leishmania tarentolae and effects on L. tarentolae secreted acid phosphatase (SAP) activity. Cell viability did not significantly decrease in the presence of 50 μM anti-perovskite compounds, implying limited cytotoxicity. Yet SAP activity did increase in the cell free preparations with time in the presence of strontium compounds. Of interest was the observation that cell free SAP activity did not increase in the presence of protease inhibitors with or without added strontium compounds. Since secreted proteases may play a role in the maturation of Leishmania SAP and thus be involved with parasite-host infection establishment, this is in further need of evaluation. Nitric oxide production on day 4 post-addition of the strontium compounds was evaluated and showed an approximately 50% decrease in NO production in the presence of two test compounds relative to DMSO control cells. This is the first report of anti-perovskite compound inhibition of NO production by Leishmania.

2-Aminopyrimidinium Decavanadate: Experimental and Theoretical Characterization, Molecular Docking, and Potential Antineoplastic Activity

The interest in decavanadate anions has increased in recent decades, since these clusters show interesting applications as varied as sensors, batteries, catalysts, or new drugs in medicine. Due to the capacity of the interaction of decavanadate with a variety of biological molecules because of its high negative charge and oxygen-rich surface, this cluster is being widely studied both in vitro and in vivo as a treatment for several global health problems such as diabetes mellitus, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease. Here, we report a new decavanadate compound with organic molecules synthesized in an aqueous solution and structurally characterized by elemental analysis, infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The decavanadate anion was combined with 2-aminopyrimidine to form the compound [2-ampymH]6[V10O28]·5H2O (1). In the crystal lattice, organic molecules are stacked by π–π interactions, with a centroid-to-centroid distance similar to that shown in DNA or RNA molecules. Furthermore, computational DFT calculations of Compound 1 corroborate the hydrogen bond interaction between pyrimidine molecules and decavanadate anions, as well as the π–π stacking interactions between the central pyrimidine molecules. Finally, docking studies with test RNA molecules indicate that they could serve as other potential targets for the anticancer activity of decavanadate anion.

Chelerythrine Chloride: A Potential Rumen Microbial Urease Inhibitor Screened by Targeting UreG

Inhibition of ruminal microbial urease is of particular interest due to its crucial role in regulating urea-N utilization efficiency and nitrogen pollution in the livestock industry. Acetohydroxamic acid (AHA) is currently the only commercially available urease inhibitor, but it has adverse side effects. The urease accessory protein UreG, which facilitates the functional incorporation of the urease nickel metallocentre, has been proposed in developing urease inhibitor through disrupting urease maturation. The objective of this study was to screen natural compounds as potential urease inhibitors by targeting UreG in a predominant ruminal microbial urease. In silico screening and in vitro tests for potential inhibitors were performed using molecular docking and an assay for the GTPase activity of UreG. Chelerythrine chloride was selected as a potential urease inhibitor of UreG with an inhibition concentration IC₅₀ value of 18.13 μM. It exhibited mixed inhibition, with the K_i value being 26.28 μM. We further explored its inhibition mechanism using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, and we found that chelerythrine chloride inhibited the binding of nickel to UreG and induced changes in the secondary structure, especially the α-helix and β-sheet of UreG. Chelerythrine chloride formed a pi-anion interaction with the Asp41 residue of UreG, which is an important residue in initiating the conformational changes of UreG. In conclusion, chelerythrine chloride exhibited a potential inhibitory effect on urease, which provided new evidence for strategies to develop novel urease inhibitors targeting UreG to reduce nitrogen excretion from ruminants.

2'-3'-Cyclic Nucleotide 3'-Phosphodiesterase Inhibition by Organometallic Vanadium Complexes: A Potential New Paradigm for Studying CNS Degeneration

The enzyme, 2′-3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) has been known for over fifty years. Nevertheless, the roles this membrane-bound enzyme play have yet to be described completely. Recently, there has been renewed interest in the study of this enzyme due to studies that suggest that CNPase plays a role in the mediation of cellular inflammatory responses in renal and nervous system tissues. Also, this enzyme, found in oligodendrocytes of the nervous system, has been reported to participate in significant regulatory changes associated with age which may be involved in age-related CNS degeneration. Consequently, development of CNPase inhibitors is of interest and should aid in the study of this, as yet, poorly understood enzyme. In this work we utilized a spectrophotometric enzyme assay to determine the effect a panel of organo-vanadium complexes had on isolated hamster myelin CNPase activity. Our group has now identified several potent in vitro CNPase inhibitors that could prove useful in clarifying the important roles of this enzyme.

Misinterpretations in Evaluating Interactions of Vanadium Complexes with Proteins and Other Biological Targets

In aqueous media, VIV- and VV-ions and compounds undergo chemical changes such as hydrolysis, ligand exchange and redox reactions that depend on pH and concentration of the vanadium species, and on the nature of the several components present. In particular, the behaviour of vanadium compounds in biological fluids depends on their environment and on concentration of the many potential ligands present. However, when reporting the biological action of a particular complex, often the possibility of chemical changes occurring has been neglected, and the modifications of the complex added are not taken into account. In this work, we highlight that as soon as most vanadium(IV) and vanadium(V) compounds are dissolved in a biological media, they undergo several types of chemical transformations, and these changes are particularly extensive at the low concentrations normally used in biological experiments. We also emphasize that in case of a biochemical interaction or effect, to determine binding constants or the active species and/or propose mechanisms of action, it is essential to evaluate its speciation in the media where it is acting. This is because the vanadium complex no longer exists in its initial form.

Rationalizing the Decavanadate(V) and Oxidovanadium(IV) Binding to G-Actin and the Competition with Decaniobate(V) and ATP

The experimental data collected over the past 15 years on the interaction of decavanadate(V) (V₁₀O₂₈^6-; V₁₀), a polyoxometalate (POM) with promising anticancer and antibacterial action, with G-actin, were rationalized by using several computational approaches (docking, density functional theory (DFT), and molecular dynamics (MD)). Moreover, a comparison with the isostructural and more stable decaniobate(V) (Nb₁₀O₂₈^6-; Nb₁₀) was carried out. Four binding sites were identified, named α, β, γ, and δ, the site α being the catalytic nucleotide site located in the cleft of the enzyme at the interface of the subdomains II and IV. It was observed that the site α is preferred by V₁₀, whereas Nb₁₀ is more stable at the site β; this indicates that, differently from other proteins, G-actin could contemporaneously bind the two POMs, whose action would be synergistic. Both decavanadate and decaniobate induce conformational rearrangements in G-actin, larger for V₁₀ than Nb₁₀. Moreover, the binding mode of oxidovanadium(IV) ion, V^IVO²⁺, formed upon the reduction of decavanadate(V) by the -SH groups of accessible cysteine residues, is also found in the catalytic site α with (His161, Asp154) coordination; this adduct overlaps significantly with the region where ATP is bound, accounting for the competition between V₁₀ and its reduction product V^IVO²⁺ with ATP, as previously observed by EPR spectroscopy. Finally, the competition with ATP was rationalized: since decavanadate prefers the nucleotide site α, Ca²⁺-ATP displaces V₁₀ from this site, while the competition is less important for Nb₁₀ because this POM shows a higher affinity for β than for site α. A relevant consequence of this paper is that other metallodrug-protein systems, in the absence or presence of eventual inhibitors and/or competition with molecules of the organism, could be studied with the same approach, suggesting important elements for an explanation of the biological data and a rational drug design.

Vanadium: Risks and possible benefits in the light of a comprehensive overview of its pharmacotoxicological mechanisms and multi-applications with a summary of further research trends

BACKGROUND

Vanadium (V) is an element with a wide range of effects on the mammalian organism. The ability of this metal to form organometallic compounds has contributed to the increase in the number of studies on the multidirectional biological activity of its various organic complexes in view of their application in medicine.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims at summarizing the current state of knowledge of the pharmacological potential of V and the mechanisms underlying its anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, anti-fungal, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, cardioprotective, and neuroprotective activity as well as the mechanisms of appetite regulation related to the possibility of using this element in the treatment of obesity. The toxicological potential of V and the mechanisms of its toxic action, which have not been sufficiently recognized yet, as well as key information about the essentiality of this metal, its physiological role, and metabolism with certain aspects on the timeline is collected as well. The report also aims to review the use of V in the implantology and industrial sectors emphasizing the human health hazard as well as collect data on the directions of further research on V and its interactions with Mg along with their character.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Multidirectional studies on V have shown that further analyses are still required for this element to be used as a metallodrug in the fight against certain life-threatening diseases. Studies on interactions of V with Mg, which showed that both elements are able to modulate the response in an interactive manner are needed as well, as the results of such investigations may help not only in recognizing new markers of V toxicity and clarify the underlying interactive mechanism between them, thus improving the medical application of the metals against modern-age diseases, but also they may help in development of principles of effective protection of humans against environmental/occupational V exposure.

Polyoxometalates in Biomedicine: Update and Overview

BACKGROUND

Polyoxometalates (POMs) are negatively charged metal-oxo clusters of early transition metal ions in high oxidation states (e.g., WVI, MoVI, VV). POMs are of interest in the fields of catalysis, electronics, magnetic materials and nanotechnology. Moreover, POMs were shown to exhibit biological activities in vitro and in vivo, such as antitumor, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic.

METHODS

The literature search for this peer-reviewed article was performed using PubMed and Scopus databases with the help of appropriate keywords.

RESULTS

This review gives a comprehensive overview of recent studies regarding biological activities of polyoxometalates, and their biomedical applications as promising anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-tumor, and anti-diabetic agents. Additionally, their putative mechanisms of action and molecular targets are particularly considered.

CONCLUSION

Although a wide range of biological activities of Polyoxometalates (POMs) has been reported, they are to the best of our knowledge not close to a clinical trial or a final application in the treatment of diabetes or infectious and malignant diseases. Accordingly, further studies should be directed towards determining the mechanism of POM biological actions, which would enable fine-tuning at the molecular level, and consequently efficient action towards biological targets and as low toxicity as possible. Furthermore, biomedical studies should be performed on solutionstable POMs employing physiological conditions and concentrations.

Research progress on the inhibition of enzymes by polyoxometalates

Polyoxometalates (POMs) are a kind of inorganic cluster metal complex with various biological activities, such as anti-Alzheimer's disease, antibacterial, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, anti-virus and so on.

Polyoxometalates in solution: speciation under spotlight

The review covers stability and transformations of classical polyoxometalates in aqueous solutions and provides their ion-distribution diagrams over a wide pH range.

In vivo toxicity evaluation of two polyoxotungstates with potential antidiabetic activity using Wistar rats as a model system

Study of the in vivo hypoglycemic effect, hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity of a donut-shaped polyanion salt (NH₄)₁₄[Na@P₅W₃₀O₁₁₀]·31H₂O {NaP5W30} and its Ag-containing derivative K₁₄[Ag@P₅W₃₀O₁₁₀]·22H₂O·6KCl {AgP5W30}.

Experimental and theoretical insights of functionalized hexavanadates on Na+/K+-ATPase activity; molecular interaction field, ab initio calculations and in vitro assays

The influence of three functionalized hexavanadates (V₆): Na₂ [V₆O₁₃{(OCH₂)₃CCH₃}₂], [H₂]₂ [V₆O₁₃{(OCH₂)₃CCH₂OCOCH₂CH₃}₂] and [(C₄H₉)₄N]₂ [V₆O₁₃{(OCH₂)₃CCH₂OOC(CH₃)₂-COOH}₂ on Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity, was investigated in vitro. Including compounds already tested by Xu et al. (Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry 161 (2016) 27-36), all functionalized hexavanadates inhibit the activity of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase in a dose-dependent manner but with different inhibitory potencies. Na₂ [V₆O₁₃{(OCH₂)₃CCH₃}₂] was found to have the best inhibition properties - showing 50% inhibition IC₅₀ = 5.50 × 10^-5 M, while [(C₄H₉)₄N]₂ [V₆O₁₃{(OCH₂)₃CCH₂OOC(CH₃)₂-COOH}₂] showed the lowest inhibitory power, IC₅₀ = 1.31 × 10^-4 M. In order to understand the bioactivity of functionalized hexavanadates series, we have also used a combined theoretical approach: determination of electrostatic potential from ab initio theoretical calculations and computation of the molecular interaction field (MIF) surface.

Vanadium in Biological Action: Chemical, Pharmacological Aspects, and Metabolic Implications in Diabetes Mellitus

Vanadium compounds have been primarily investigated as potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of various major health issues, including cancer, atherosclerosis, and diabetes. The translation of vanadium-based compounds into clinical trials and ultimately into disease treatments remains hampered by the absence of a basic pharmacological and metabolic comprehension of such compounds. In this review, we examine the development of vanadium-containing compounds in biological systems regarding the role of the physiological environment, dosage, intracellular interactions, metabolic transformations, modulation of signaling pathways, toxicology, and transport and tissue distribution as well as therapeutic implications. From our point of view, the toxicological and pharmacological aspects in animal models and humans are not understood completely, and thus, we introduced them in a physiological environment and dosage context. Different transport proteins in blood plasma and mechanistic transport determinants are discussed. Furthermore, an overview of different vanadium species and the role of physiological factors (i.e., pH, redox conditions, concentration, and so on) are considered. Mechanistic specifications about different signaling pathways are discussed, particularly the phosphatases and kinases that are modulated dynamically by vanadium compounds because until now, the focus only has been on protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B as a vanadium target. Particular emphasis is laid on the therapeutic ability of vanadium-based compounds and their role for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, specifically on that of vanadate- and polioxovanadate-containing compounds. We aim at shedding light on the prevailing gaps between primary scientific data and information from animal models and human studies.

Metformin-decavanadate treatment ameliorates hyperglycemia and redox balance of the liver and muscle in a rat model of alloxan-induced diabetes

MetfDeca treatment ameliorate glucose and insulin levels, and reduce the levels of oxidized glutathione, reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde, and 4-hydroxyalkenal; the superoxide and catalase activities, and glutathione levels were regulated.

Polyoxovanadate inhibition of Escherichia coli growth shows a reverse correlation with Ca2+-ATPase inhibition

Polyoxovanadates were recently found to be the most active among a series of polyoxometalates against bacteria. In this study, a reverse correlation was found between the Ca²⁺-ATPase IC₅₀ and the E. Coli GI₅₀ values.

Synthesis and Antibacterial Activity of Polyoxometalates with Different Structures

A new inorganic-organic hybrid compound, [{Cu(phen)2}2(H4W12O40)], was synthesized, and its crystal structure was determined. The Keggin anion H4W12O40 4- was grafted with two coordination units {Cu(phen)2}, forming an electrically neutral molecule. The antibacterial activity of several polyoxometalate compounds with different anionic structures including the new compound was studied. The results show that the compound 1 can inhibit the growth of Enterococcus faecalis FA2 strains and that antibacterial activity of the polyoxometalate compounds is dependent with component elements of POM but is less relative with the anion structures.

Decavanadate Inhibits Mycobacterial Growth More Potently Than Other Oxovanadates

51V NMR spectroscopy is used to document, using speciation analysis, that one oxometalate is a more potent growth inhibitor of two Mycobacterial strains than other oxovanadates, thus demonstrating selectivity in its interaction with cells. Historically, oxometalates have had many applications in biological and medical studies, including study of the phase-problem in X-ray crystallography of the ribosome. The effect of different vanadate salts on the growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis (M. smeg) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) was investigated, and speciation was found to be critical for the observed growth inhibition. Specifically, the large orange-colored sodium decavanadate (V10O 28 6 - ) anion was found to be a stronger inhibitor of growth of two mycobacterial species than the colorless oxovanadate prepared from sodium metavanadate. The vanadium(V) speciation in the growth media and conversion among species under growth conditions was monitored using 51V NMR spectroscopy and speciation calculations. The findings presented in this work is particularly important in considering the many applications of polyoxometalates in biological and medical studies, such as the investigation of the phase-problem in X-ray crystallography for the ribosome. The findings presented in this work investigate the interactions of oxometalates with other biological systems.

Vanadium: History, chemistry, interactions with α-amino acids and potential therapeutic applications

In the last 30 years, since the discovery that vanadium is a cofactor found in certain enzymes of tunicates and possibly in mammals, different vanadium-based drugs have been developed targeting to treat different pathologies. So far, the in vitro studies of the insulin mimetic, antitumor and antiparasitic activity of certain compounds of vanadium have resulted in a great boom of its inorganic and bioinorganic chemistry. Chemical speciation studies of vanadium with amino acids under controlled conditions or, even in blood plasma, are essential for the understanding of the biotransformation of e.g. vanadium antidiabetic complexes at the physiological level, providing clues of their mechanism of action. The present article carries out a bibliographical research emphaticizing the chemical speciation of the vanadium with different amino acids and reviewing also some other important aspects such as its chemistry and therapeutical applications of several vanadium complexes.

Evidence That Speciation of Oxovanadium Complexes Does Not Solely Account for Inhibition of Leishmania Acid Phosphatases

Leishmaniasis is an endemic disease affecting a diverse spectra of populations, with 1.6 million new cases reported each year. Current treatment options are costly and have harsh side effects. New therapeutic options that have been previously identified, but still underappreciated as potential pharmaceutical targets, are Leishmania secreted acid phosphatases (SAP). These acid phosphatases, which are reported to play a role in the survival of the parasite in the sand fly vector, and in homing to the host macrophage, are inhibited by orthovanadate and decavanadate. Here, we use L. tarentolae to further evaluate these inhibitors. Using enzyme assays, and UV-visible spectroscopy, we investigate which oxovanadium starting material (orthovanadate or decavanadate) is a better inhibitor of L. tarentolae secreted acid phosphatase activity in vitro at the same total moles of vanadium. Considering speciation and total vanadium concentration, decavanadate is a consistently better inhibitor of SAP in our conditions, especially at low substrate:inhibitor ratios.

The P-type ATPase inhibiting potential of polyoxotungstates

Polyoxometalates (POMs) are transition metal complexes that exhibit a broad diversity of structures and properties rendering them promising for biological purposes. POMs are able to inhibit a series of biologically important enzymes, including phosphatases, and thus are able to affect many biochemical processes. In the present study, we analyzed and compared the inhibitory effects of nine different polyoxotungstates (POTs) on two P-type ATPases, Ca2+-ATPase from skeletal muscle and Na+/K+-ATPase from basal membrane of skin epithelia. For Ca2+-ATPase inhibition, an in vitro study was performed and the strongest inhibitors were determined to be the large heteropolytungstate K9(C2H8N)5[H10Se2W29O103] (Se2W29) and the Dawson-type POT K6[α-P2W18O62] (P2W18) exhibiting IC50 values of 0.3 and 0.6 μM, respectively. Promising results were also shown for the Keggin-based POTs K6H2[CoW11TiO40] (CoW11Ti, IC50 = 4 μM) and Na10[α-SiW9O34] (SiW9, IC50 = 16 μM), K14[As2W19O67(H2O)] (As2W19, IC50 = 28 μM) and the lacunary Dawson K12[α-H2P2W12O48] (P2W12, IC50 = 11 μM), whereas low inhibitory potencies were observed for the isopolytungstate Na12[H4W22O74] (W22, IC50 = 68 μM) and the Anderson-type Na6[TeW6O24] (TeW6, IC50 = 200 μM). Regarding the inhibition of Na+/K+-ATPase activity, for the first time an ex vivo study was conducted using the opercular epithelium of killifish in order to investigate the effects of POTs on the epithelial chloride secretion. Interestingly, 1 μM of the most potent Ca2+-ATPase inhibitor, Se2W29, showed only a minor inhibitory effect (14% inhibition) on Na+/K+-ATPase activity, whereas almost total inhibition (99% inhibition) was achieved using P2W18. The remaining POTs exhibited similar inhibition rates on both ATPases. These results reveal the high potential of some POTs to act as P-type ATPase inhibitors, with Se2W29 showing high selectivity towards Ca2+-ATPase.

The antibacterial activity of polyoxometalates: structures, antibiotic effects and future perspectives

Polyoxometalates (POMs) are, mostly anionic, metal oxide compounds that span a wide range of tunable physical and chemical features rendering them very interesting for biological purposes, an continuously emerging but little explored field. Due to their biological and biochemical effects, including antitumor, -viral and -bacterial properties, POMs and POM-based systems are considered as promising future metallodrugs. In this article, we focus on the antibacterial activity of POMs and their therapeutic potential in the battle against bacteria and their increasing resistance against pharmaceuticals. Recent advances in the synthesis of POMs are highlighted, with emphasis on the development and properties of biologically active POM-based hybrid and nanocomposite structures. By analysing the antibacterial activity and structure of POMs, putative mode of actions are provided, including potential targets for POM-protein interactions, and a structure-activity-relationship was established for a series of POMs against two bacteria, namely Helicobacter pylori and Streptococcus pneumoniae.

POM-1 inhibits P2 receptors and exhibits anti-inflammatory effects in macrophages

Extracellular nucleotides can modulate the immunological response by activating purinergic receptors (P2Rs) on the cell surface of macrophages, dendritic, and other immune cells. In particular, the activation of P2X7R can induce release of cytokines and cell death as well as the uptake of large molecules through the cell membrane by a mechanism still poorly understood. Polyoxotungstate-1 (POM-1) has been proposed as a potent inhibitor of ecto-nucleotidases, enzymes that hydrolyze extracellular nucleotides, regulating the activity of P2Rs. However, the potential impact of POM-1 on P2Rs has not been evaluated. Here, we used fluorescent dye uptake, cytoplasmic free Ca2+ concentration measurement, patch-clamp recordings, scanning electron microscopy, and quantification of inflammatory mediators to investigate the effects of POM-1 on P2Rs of murine macrophages. We observed that POM-1 blocks the P2YR-dependent cytoplasmic Ca2+ increase and has partial effects on the cytoplasmic Ca2+, increasing dependence on P2XRs. POM-1 can inhibit the events related with ATP-dependent inflammasome activation, anionic dye uptake, and also the opening of large conductance channels, which are associated with P2X7R-dependent pannexin-1 activation. On the other hand, this compound has no effects on cationic fluorescent dye uptake, apoptosis, and bleb formation, also dependent on P2X7R. Moreover, POM-1 can be considered an anti-inflammatory compound, because it prevents TNF-α and nitric oxide release from LPS-treated macrophages.

Recombinant Toxoplasma gondii phosphoglycerate mutase 2 confers protective immunity against toxoplasmosis in BALB/c mice

Toxoplasmosis is one of the most widespread zoonoses worldwide. It has a high incidence and can result in severe disease in humans and livestock. Effective vaccines are needed to limit and prevent infection with Toxoplasma gondii. In this study, we evaluated the immuno-protective efficacy of a recombinant Toxoplasma gondii phosphoglycerate mutase 2 (rTgPGAM 2) against T. gondii infection in BALB/c mice. We report that the mice nasally immunised with rTgPGAM 2 displayed significantly higher levels of special IgG antibodies against rTgPGAM 2 (including IgG1, IgG2a and IgAs) and cytokines (including IFN-γ, IL-2 and IL-4) in their blood sera and supernatant of cultured spleen cells compared to those of control animals. In addition, an increased number of spleen lymphocytes and enhanced lymphocyte proliferative responses were observed in the rTgPGAM 2-immunised mice. After chronic infection and lethal challenge with the highly virulent T. gondii RH strain by oral gavage, the survival time of the rTgPGAM 2-immunised mice was longer (P < 0.01) and the survival rate (70%) was higher compared with the control mice (P < 0.01). The reduction rate of brain and liver tachyzoites in rTgPGAM 2-vaccinated mice reached approximately 57% and 69% compared with those of the control mice (P < 0.01). These results suggest that rTgPGAM 2 can generate protective immunity against T. gondii infection in BALB/c mice and may be a promising antigen in the further development of an effective vaccine against T. gondii infection.

Studies of the Effectiveness of Bisphosphonate and Vanadium-Bisphosphonate Compounds In Vitro against Axenic Leishmania tarentolae

Leishmaniasis is a disease that is a significant problem for people, especially in tropical regions of the world. Current drug therapies to treat the disease are expensive, not very effective, and/or of significant side effects. A series of alkyl bisphosphonate compounds and one amino bisphosphonate compound, as well as alendronate and zoledronate, were tested as potential agents against Leishmania tarentolae. Also, two polyoxometalates (POMs) with nitrogen-containing bisphosphonate ligands, vanadium/alendronate (V₅(Ale)₂) and vanadium/zoledronate (V₃(Zol)₃), were tested against L. tarentolae and compared to the results of the alendronate and zoledronate ligands alone. Of the compounds evaluated in this study, the V₅(Ale)₂ and V₃(Zol)₃ complexes were most effective in inhibiting the growth of L. tarentolae. The V₅(Ale)₂ complex had a larger impact on cell growth than either alendronate or orthovanadate alone, whereas zoledronate itself has a significant effect on cell growth, which may contribute to the activity of the V₃(Zol)₃ complex.

Decavanadate Toxicology and Pharmacological Activities: V10 or V1, Both or None?

This review covers recent advances in the understanding of decavanadate toxicology and pharmacological applications. Toxicological in vivo studies point out that V10 induces several changes in several oxidative stress parameters, different from the ones observed for vanadate (V1). In in vitro studies with mitochondria, a particularly potent V10 effect, in comparison with V1, was observed in the mitochondrial depolarization (IC50 = 40 nM) and oxygen consumption (99 nM). It is suggested that mitochondrial membrane depolarization is a key event in decavanadate induction of necrotic cardiomyocytes death. Furthermore, only decavanadate species and not V1 potently inhibited myosin ATPase activity stimulated by actin (IC50 = 0.75 μM) whereas exhibiting lower inhibition activities for Ca(2+)-ATPase activity (15 μM) and actin polymerization (17 μM). Because both calcium pump and actin decavanadate interactions lead to its stabilization, it is likely that V10 interacts at specific locations with these proteins that protect against hydrolysis but, on the other hand, it may induce V10 reduction to oxidovanadium(IV). Putting it all together, it is suggested that the pharmacological applications of V10 species and compounds whose mechanism of action is still to be clarified might involve besides V10 and V1 also vanadium(IV) species.

Influence of oxodiperoxovanadate complexes on prion neuropeptide fibril formation

Different oxodiperoxovanadate complexes inhibit the fibril formation of prion neuropeptides by different action modes.

Vanadium compounds in medicine

Vanadium is a transition metal that, being ubiquitously distributed in soil, crude oil, water and air, also found roles in biological systems and is an essential element in most living beings. There are also several groups of organisms which accumulate vanadium, employing it in their biological processes. Vanadium being a biological relevant element, it is not surprising that many vanadium based therapeutic drugs have been proposed for the treatment of several types of diseases. Namely, vanadium compounds, in particular organic derivatives, have been proposed for the treatment of diabetes, of cancer and of diseases caused by parasites. In this work we review the medicinal applications proposed for vanadium compounds with particular emphasis on the more recent publications. In cells, partly due to the similarity of vanadate and phosphate, vanadium compounds activate numerous signaling pathways and transcription factors; this by itself potentiates application of vanadium-based therapeutics. Nevertheless, this non-specific bio-activity may also introduce several deleterious side effects as in addition, due to Fenton's type reactions or of the reaction with atmospheric O2, VCs may also generate reactive oxygen species, thereby introducing oxidative stress with consequences presently not well evaluated, particularly for long-term administration of vanadium to humans. Notwithstanding, the potential of vanadium compounds to treat type 2 diabetes is still an open question and therapies using vanadium compounds for e.g. antitumor and anti-parasitic related diseases remain promising.

High selective antileishmanial activity of vanadium complex with stilbene derivative

Leishmaniasis is a group of disease caused by different species of the parasite Leishmania affecting millions of people worldwide. Conventional therapy relies on multiple parenteral injections with pentavalent antimonials which exhibit high toxicity and various side effects have been reported. Hence, the research for an effective and low toxic effect drug is necessary. In the present work, the synthesis, spectroscopic and analytical characterizations of stilbene derivative (H2Salophen) and its vanadium complex (VOSalophen) are reported. Besides the chemical ancillary information, investigation of the leishmanicidal effects of these compounds were provided. The biological assays against promastigote and amastigote forms of L. amazonensis have been shown that VOSalophen exhibited a strong antiparasitic activity (IC50 of 6.65 and 3.51 μM, respectively). Furthermore, the leishmanicidal activity was concentration and time-dependent. Regarding toxicity and selectivity on mammalian cells, VOSalophen have not caused significant damage to human erythrocytes in all concentrations tested and VOSalophen was almost seven times more destructive for the intracellular parasite than for macrophages. Furthermore, the leishmanicidal activity of VOSalophen in promastigote forms of L. amazonensis could be associated to mitochondrial dysfunction and increase of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In L. amazonensis-infected macrophages, VOSalophen induces ROS production and a microbicidal action NO-dependent. Our biological results indicate the effective and selective action of VOSalophen against L. amazonensis and the leishmanicidal effect can be associated to parasite disorders and immumodulatory effects.

Inhibitory effects of α-Na8SiW11CoO40 on tyrosinase and its application in controlling browning of fresh-cut apples

α-Na8SiW11CoO40 was synthesized and characterized. The inhibitory effects of α-Na8SiW11CoO40 on the activity of mushroom tyrosinase and the effects of α-Na8SiW11CoO40 on the browning of fresh-cut apples were studied. The Native-PAGE result showed that α-Na8SiW11CoO40 had a significant inhibitory effect on tyrosinase. Kinetic analyses showed that α-Na8SiW11CoO40 was an irreversible and competitive inhibitor. The inhibitor concentration leading to a 50% reduction in activity (IC50) was estimated to be 0.239 mM. Additionally, the results also showed that α-Na8SiW11CoO40 treatment could significantly decrease the browning process of apple slices and inhibit the polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity. Moreover, application of α-Na8SiW11CoO40 resulted in higher peroxidase activity and promoted high amounts of phenolic compounds and ascorbic acid. This study may provide a promising method for the use of polyoxometalates to inhibit tyrosinase activity and control the browning of fresh-cut apples.