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Scheifler M, Wilhelm L, Visser B. Lipid Metabolism in Parasitoids and Parasitized Hosts. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024. [PMID: 38977639 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2024_812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
Parasitoids have an exceptional lifestyle where juvenile development is spent on or in a single host insect, but the adults are free-living. Unlike parasites, parasitoids kill the host. How parasitoids use such a limiting resource, particularly lipids, can affect chances to survive and reproduce. In part 1, we describe the parasitoid lifestyle, including typical developmental strategies. Lipid metabolism in parasitoids has been of interest to researchers since the 1960s and continues to fascinate ecologists, evolutionists, physiologists, and entomologists alike. One reason of this interest is that the majority of parasitoids do not accumulate triacylglycerols as adults. Early research revealed that some parasitoid larvae mimic the fatty acid composition of the host, which may result from a lack of de novo triacylglycerol synthesis. More recent work has focused on the evolution of lack of adult triacylglycerol accumulation and consequences for life history traits. In part 2 of this chapter, we discuss research efforts on lipid metabolism in parasitoids from the 1960s onwards. Parasitoids are also master manipulators of host physiology, including lipid metabolism, having evolved a range of mechanisms to affect the release, synthesis, transport, and take-up of lipids from the host. We lay out the effects of parasitism on host physiology in part 3 of this chapter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathilde Scheifler
- Evolution and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Functional and Evolutionary Entomology, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Léonore Wilhelm
- Evolution and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Functional and Evolutionary Entomology, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - Bertanne Visser
- Evolution and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Functional and Evolutionary Entomology, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium.
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2
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Pang L, Fang G, Liu Z, Dong Z, Chen J, Feng T, Zhang Q, Sheng Y, Lu Y, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Li G, Chen X, Zhan S, Huang J. Coordinated molecular and ecological adaptations underlie a highly successful parasitoid. eLife 2024; 13:RP94748. [PMID: 38904661 PMCID: PMC11192535 DOI: 10.7554/elife.94748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The success of an organism depends on the molecular and ecological adaptations that promote its beneficial fitness. Parasitoids are valuable biocontrol agents for successfully managing agricultural pests, and they have evolved diversified strategies to adapt to both the physiological condition of hosts and the competition of other parasitoids. Here, we deconstructed the parasitic strategies in a highly successful parasitoid, Trichopria drosophilae, which parasitizes a broad range of Drosophila hosts, including the globally invasive species D. suzukii. We found that T. drosophilae had developed specialized venom proteins that arrest host development to obtain more nutrients via secreting tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), as well as a unique type of cell-teratocytes-that digest host tissues for feeding by releasing trypsin proteins. In addition to the molecular adaptations that optimize nutritional uptake, this pupal parasitoid has evolved ecologically adaptive strategies including the conditional tolerance of intraspecific competition to enhance parasitic success in older hosts and the obligate avoidance of interspecific competition with larval parasitoids. Our study not only demystifies how parasitoids weaponize themselves to colonize formidable hosts but also provided empirical evidence of the intricate coordination between the molecular and ecological adaptations that drive evolutionary success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Pang
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Gangqi Fang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of SciencesShanghaiChina
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Zhiguo Liu
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Zhi Dong
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Jiani Chen
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Ting Feng
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Qichao Zhang
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Yifeng Sheng
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Yueqi Lu
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Ying Wang
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Yixiang Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of SciencesShanghaiChina
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Guiyun Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of SciencesShanghaiChina
| | - Xuexin Chen
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- State Key Lab of Rice Biology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
| | - Shuai Zhan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Insect Developmental and Evolutionary Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of SciencesShanghaiChina
- CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Jianhua Huang
- Institute of Insect Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
- Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhouChina
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3
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Cuny MAC, Poelman EH. Evolution of koinobiont parasitoid host regulation and consequences for indirect plant defence. Evol Ecol 2022; 36:299-319. [PMID: 35663232 PMCID: PMC9156490 DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10180-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Tritrophic interactions among plants, herbivorous insects and their parasitoids have been well studied in the past four decades. Recently, a new angle has been uncovered: koinobiont parasitoids, that allow their host to keep feeding on the plant for a certain amount of time after parasitism, indirectly alter plant responses against herbivory via the many physiological changes induced in their herbivorous hosts. By affecting plant responses, parasitoids may indirectly affect the whole community of insects interacting with plants induced by parasitized herbivores and have extended effects on plant fitness. These important findings have renewed research interests on parasitoid manipulation of their host development. Parasitoids typically arrest their host development before the last instar, resulting in a lower final weight compared to unparasitized hosts. Yet, some parasitoids prolong their host development, leading to larger herbivores that consume more plant material than unparasitized ones. Furthermore, parasitoid host regulation is plastic and one parasitoid species may arrest or promote its host growth depending on the number of eggs laid, host developmental stage and species as well as environmental conditions. The consequences of plasticity in parasitoid host regulation for plant–insect interactions have received very little attention over the last two decades, particularly concerning parasitoids that promote their host growth. In this review, we first synthesize the mechanisms used by parasitoids to regulate host growth and food consumption. Then, we identify the evolutionary and environmental factors that influence the direction of parasitoid host regulation in terms of arrestment or promotion of host growth. In addition, we discuss the implication of different host regulation types for the parasitoid’s role as agent of plant indirect defence. Finally, we argue that the recent research interests about parasitoid plant-mediated interactions would strongly benefit from revival of research on the mechanisms, ecology and evolution of host regulation in parasitoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilien A. C. Cuny
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Erik H. Poelman
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
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4
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McLean AHC, Godfray HCJ. Evidence for specificity in symbiont-conferred protection against parasitoids. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:rspb.2015.0977. [PMID: 26136451 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Many insects harbour facultative symbiotic bacteria, some of which have been shown to provide resistance against natural enemies. One of the best-known protective symbionts is Hamiltonella defensa, which in pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) confers resistance against attack by parasitoid wasps in the genus Aphidius (Braconidae).We asked (i) whether this symbiont also confers protection against a phylogenetically distant group of parasitoids (Aphelinidae) and (ii) whether there are consistent differences in the effects of bacteria found in pea aphid biotypes adapted to different host plants. We found that some H. defensa strains do provide protection against an aphelinid parasitoid Aphelinus abdominalis. Hamiltonella defensa from the Lotus biotype provided high resistance to A. abdominalis and moderate to low resistance to Aphidius ervi, while the reverse was seen from Medicago biotype isolates. Aphids from Ononis showed no evidence of symbiont-mediated protection against either wasp species and were relatively vulnerable to both. Our results may reflect the different selection pressures exerted by the parasitoid community on aphids feeding on different host plants, and could help explain the maintenance of genetic diversity in bacterial symbionts.
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Mancini D, Garonna AP, Pedata PA. To divide or not to divide: An alternative behavior for teratocytes in Encarsia pergandiella (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2016; 45:57-63. [PMID: 26529581 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Encarsia pergandiella (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) is an endoparasitoid with an unusual embryonic development compared to most of congeneric species and all other members of the superfamily Chalcidoidea. The developmental background of this wasp is based on an alecithal hydropic egg, with the embryo developing inside an extra-embryonic membrane which dissociates at hatching into special larva-assisting cells, the teratocytes. In E. pergandiella many teratocytes at hatching were multinucleated syncytial cells with no evidence of a cellular membrane separating the nuclei. These teratocytes during larval development produced smaller uninucleated teratocytes, through successive divisions obtained by progressive ingrowth of the plasmatic membrane, accompanied by appearance of degeneration symptoms, such as protrusions and blebs. As a consequence of this divisional process teratocytes showed a size reduction and an increase in number of about four times during the second day of larval development. Only on the third day of larval life teratocytes started to decrease in number, until total disappearance at larval maturation. This behaviour is in striking contrast with all other studied systems in which teratocytes do not divide and progressively decrease in number as the parasitoid larva develops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donato Mancini
- Dipartimento di Agraria, Sezione di Biologia e Protezione dei Sistemi Agrari e Forestali, Università degli Studi di Napoli "Federico II", Via Università 100, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy
| | - Antonio P Garonna
- Dipartimento di Agraria, Sezione di Biologia e Protezione dei Sistemi Agrari e Forestali, Università degli Studi di Napoli "Federico II", Via Università 100, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy
| | - Paolo A Pedata
- Istituto per la Protezione Sostenibile delle Piante CNR, Via Università 133, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy.
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6
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Ali MR, Lim J, Kim Y. Transcriptome of a specialized extra-embryonic cell, teratocyte, and its host immunosuppressive role revealed by ex vivo RNA interference. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 24:13-28. [PMID: 25255866 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The specialized wasp cells teratocytes (TCs) are derived from the embryonic serosal membrane of some parasitic hymenopteran insects. As a parasitic factor, TCs are multifunctional in host regulation, such as host nutritional deprivation, immunosuppression and developmental arrest; however, little is understood about their genetic constituents. The present study provides a comprehensive view of the genes expressed by TCs through a transcriptome analysis based on RNA sequencing technology. The assembled 34 686 contigs (>200 base pairs) were annotated into different functional categories, indicating a distinct distribution in gene transcripts compared with those of haemocytes and fat body. The TC transcriptome contained components of insulin signalling and biosyntheses of juvenile hormone and 20-hydroxyecdysone. TCs also expressed various groups of digestive enzymes, indicating that they have nutritional role for the growing parasitoid larvae in parasitism. Furthermore, through this transcriptome analysis two kinds of immunosuppressive serine protease inhibitors (serpins) and Rho GTPase-activating proteins (RhoGAPs) were annotated. To determine the biological functions of these factors, we devised ex vivo RNA interference (RNAi) by conducting knockdown of gene expression in in vitro-cultured TCs followed by injection of the treated TCs to test insects. Ex vivo RNAi revealed that some serpins and RhoGAPs expressed in TCs inhibited host cellular immunity. This study reports a transcriptome of the unique TC animal cell and its immunosuppressive genetic factors using ex vivo RNAi technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Ali
- Department of Bioresource Sciences, Andong National University, Andong, Korea; Department of Biological Sciences, Andong National University, Andong, Korea
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7
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Strand MR. Teratocytes and their functions in parasitoids. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 6:68-73. [PMID: 32846683 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Some endoparasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera) produce teratocytes, which are a type of cell that is released into host insects when wasp eggs hatch. In this short review I first summarize the different taxa of wasps that produce teratocytes, the embryonic origin of these cells, and key features of teratocyte growth. Then I discuss the known or hypothesized functions of teratocytes, and the range of teratocyte gene products that have been identified including recent transcriptome and proteome data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Strand
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, United States.
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Mancini D, Garonna AP, Pedata PA. A new embryonic pattern in parasitic wasps: divergence in early development may not be associated with lifestyle. Evol Dev 2014; 15:418-25. [PMID: 24261443 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Comparative embryogenesis of Encarsia formosa and Encarsia pergandiella (Hymenoptera Aphelinidae), two endoparasitoids of whiteflies (Hemiptera Aleyrodidae), revealed two strongly diverging developmental patterns. Indeed, the centrolecithal anhydropic egg of E. formosa developed through a superficial cleavage, as it occurs in Nasonia vitripennis, Apis mellifera, and Drosophila melanogaster. In contrast, the alecithal hydropic egg of E. pergandiella developed through holoblastic cleavage within a specialized extra-embryonic membrane (EEM). Since this developmental pattern evolved independently in several lineages of hymenopteran endoparasitoids, departures from the superficial cleavage mode have been argued to be strongly canalized in response to a shift from ecto- to endoparasitic lifestyle. Coexistence of both developmental patterns in two congeneric species suggests that alterations of early embryonic development may not be correlated with lifestyle. In addition, embryogenesis of E. pergandiella exhibited the following developmental novelties compared to other species possessing a hydropic egg: (i) polar body derivatives early acquired a cytoskeletal boundary prior to any other cellularization event; (ii) cellularization was asynchronous, starting with an early differentiation of a single apical blastomere at the end of the third cleavage; (iii) appearance of cytoskeletal boundaries of embryo blastomeres occurred between the third and fourth cleavages; (iv) the EEM originated through asynchronous participation of three separate lineages of cleavage nuclei, one of which associated with the polar body derivatives in a syncytium. Our results confirm a scenario of high plasticity in the early developmental strategies of hymenopteran endoparasitoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donato Mancini
- Dipartimento di Agraria, Sezione di Biologia e Protezione dei Sistemi Agrari e Forestali, Università degli Studi di Napoli "Federico II, ", Via Università 100, 80055, Portici (NA), Italy
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9
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Gumovsky AV, Ramadan MM. Biology, immature and adult morphology, and molecular characterization of a new species of the genus Entedon (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) associated with the invasive pest Specularius impressithorax (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae, Bruchinae) on Erythrina plants. BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2011; 101:715-739. [PMID: 21745424 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485311000290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Entedon erythrinae sp. n. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), a gregarious egg-larval endoparasitoid of the Erythrina bruchine Specularius impressithorax, an invasive pest of the coral tree seeds (Erythrina spp.), is described from the Hawaiian Islands and Africa (South Africa, Tanzania and Mozambique). The biology and morphology of preimaginal stages of this new species are described in details.It is remarkable that the early embryo of the parasitoid represents a mass of undifferentiated cells surrounded by a peculiar membrane formed by the peripheral enlarged polygonal cells. The young larva developing inside this membrane corresponds morphologically to the second instar of congeneric species. Various peculiarities of the parasitoid-host relationships in gregarious and solitary Entedon parasitoids are discussed. The DNA sequences of 28S D2 (nuclear), Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI, mitochondrial) and Cytochrome B (CytB, mitochondrial) genes are provided for this new species and compared with the sequences of some other Afrotropical and Palearctic species of the genus.
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Sabri A, Hance T, Leroy PD, Frère I, Haubruge E, Destain J, Compère P, Thonart P. Placenta-like structure of the aphid endoparasitic wasp Aphidius ervi: a strategy of optimal resources acquisition. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18847. [PMID: 21526196 PMCID: PMC3079733 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aphidius ervi (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is an entomophagous parasitoid known to be an effective parasitoid of several aphid species of economic importance. A reduction of its production cost during mass rearing for inundative release is needed to improve its use in biological control of pests. In these contexts, a careful analysis of its entire development phases within its host is needed. This paper shows that this parasitoid has some characteristics in its embryological development rather complex and different from most other reported insects, which can be phylogenetically very close. First, its yolkless egg allows a high fecundity of the female but force them to hatch from the egg shell rapidly to the host hemocoel. An early cellularisation allowing a rapid differentiation of a serosa membrane seems to confirm this hypothesis. The serosa wraps the developing embryo until the first instar larva stage and invades the host tissues by microvilli projections and form a placenta like structure able to divert host resources and allowing nutrition and respiration of embryo. Such interspecific invasion, at the cellular level, recalls mammal's trophoblasts that anchors maternal uterine wall and underlines the high adaptation of A. ervi to develop in the host body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Sabri
- Centre Wallon de Biologie Industrielle, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium.
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Visser B, Ellers J. Lack of lipogenesis in parasitoids: a review of physiological mechanisms and evolutionary implications. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 54:1315-1322. [PMID: 18706420 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2008.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2008] [Revised: 07/14/2008] [Accepted: 07/21/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The ability of organisms to adapt to fluctuating food conditions is essential for their survival and reproduction. Accumulating energy reserves, such as lipids, in anticipation of harsh conditions, will reduce negative effects of a low food supply. For Hymenoptera and Diptera, several parasitoid species lack adult lipogenesis, and are unable to store excess energy in the form of lipid reserves. The aim of this review is to provide a synthesis of current knowledge regarding the inability to accumulate lipids in parasitoids, leading to new insights and prospects for further research. We will emphasize physiological mechanisms underlying lack of lipogenesis, the evolution of this adaptation in parasitoids and its biological implications with regard to life history traits. We suggest the occurrence of lack of lipogenesis in parasitoids to be dependent on the extent of host exploitation through metabolic manipulation. Currently available data shows lack of lipogenesis to have evolved independently at least twice, in parasitic Hymenoptera and Diptera. The underlying genetic mechanism, however, remains to be solved. Furthermore, due to the inability to replenish adult fat reserves, parasitoids are severely constrained in resource allocation strategies, in particular the trade-off between survival and reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertanne Visser
- Institute of Ecological Science, VU University, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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12
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Extraembryonic development in insects and the acrobatics of blastokinesis. Dev Biol 2008; 313:471-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2007] [Revised: 10/11/2007] [Accepted: 11/02/2007] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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13
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Grimaldi A, Caccia S, Congiu T, Ferrarese R, Tettamanti G, Rivas-Pena M, Perletti G, Valvassori R, Giordana B, Falabella P, Pennacchio F, de Eguileor M. Structure and function of the extraembryonic membrane persisting around the larvae of the parasitoid Toxoneuron nigriceps. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2006; 52:870-80. [PMID: 16843482 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2006.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2006] [Revised: 05/16/2006] [Accepted: 05/16/2006] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The embryo of Toxoneuron nigriceps (Hymenoptera, Braconidae) is surrounded by an extraembryonic membrane, which, at hatching, releases teratocytes and gives rise to a cell layer embedding the body of the 1st instar larva. This cell layer was studied at different developmental times, from soon after hatching up to the first larval moult, in order to elucidate its ultrastructural, immunocytochemical and physiological function. The persisting "larval serosa" shows a striking structural and functional complexity: it is a multifunctional barrier with protective properties, limits the passage of macromolecules and it is actively involved in the enzymatic processing and uptake of nutrients. The reported results emphasizes the important role that the embryo-derived host regulation factors may have in parasitism success in Hymenoptera koinobionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Grimaldi
- Dipartimento di Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale, Università dell'Insubria, via Dunant 3, 21100 Varese, Italy.
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14
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Pennacchio F, Strand MR. Evolution of developmental strategies in parasitic hymenoptera. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2006; 51:233-58. [PMID: 16332211 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 342] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Parasitoid wasps have evolved a wide spectrum of developmental interactions with hosts. In this review we synthesize and interpret results from the phylogenetic, ecological, physiological, and molecular literature to identify factors that have influenced the evolution of parasitoid developmental strategies. We first discuss the origins and radiation of the parasitoid lifestyle in the Hymenoptera. We then summarize how parasitoid developmental strategies are affected by ecological interactions and assess the inventory of physiological and molecular traits parasitoids use to successfully exploit hosts. Last, we discuss how certain parasitoid virulence genes have evolved and how these changes potentially affect parasitoid-host interactions. The combination of phylogenetic data with comparative and functional genomics offers new avenues for understanding the evolution of biological diversity in this group of insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Pennacchio
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Difesa e Biotecnologie Agro-Forestali, Università della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy.
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Kaeslin M, Pfister-Wilhelm R, Lanzrein B. Influence of the parasitoid Chelonus inanitus and its polydnavirus on host nutritional physiology and implications for parasitoid development. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 51:1330-9. [PMID: 16203013 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2005.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2005] [Revised: 08/10/2005] [Accepted: 08/11/2005] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Chelonus inanitus is a solitary egg-larval endoparasitoid, which feeds on host haemolymph during its internal phase. Parasitization induces in the host Spodoptera littoralis a precocious onset of metamorphosis and a developmental arrest in the prepupal stage. At this stage the parasitoid larva emerges from the host and consumes it. We show here that parasitization and the co-injected polydnaviruses affect the nutritional physiology of the host mainly in the last larval instar. Polydnaviruses cause a reduced uptake of food and an increase in the concentration of free sugars in the haemolymph and of glycogen in whole body. The parasitoid larva, along with polydnaviruses, causes a reduction of proteins in the host's plasma and an accumulation of lipids in whole body. Dilution of host haemolymph led to a reduced concentration of lipid in parasitoid larvae and a reduced survival rate. Thus, a sufficient concentration of nutrients in the host's haemolymph appears to be crucial for successful parasitoid development. Altogether, the data show that the parasitoid and the polydnavirus differentially influence host nutritional physiology and that the accumulated lipids and glycogen are taken up by the parasitoid in its haematophagous stage as well as through the subsequent external host feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha Kaeslin
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Berne, Switzerland
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Gelman DB, Gerling D, Blackburn MB, Hu JS. Host-parasite interactions between whiteflies and their parasitoids. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 60:209-22. [PMID: 16304614 DOI: 10.1002/arch.20101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
There is relatively little information available concerning the physiological and biochemical interactions between whiteflies and their parasitoids. In this report, we describe interactions between aphelinid parasitoids and their aleyrodid hosts that we have observed in four host-parasite systems: Bemisia tabaci/Encarsia formosa, Trialeurodes vaporariorum/E. formosa, B. tabaci/Eretmocerus mundus, and T. lauri/Encarsia scapeata. In the absence of reported polydnavirus and teratocytes, these parasitoids probably inject and/or produce compounds that interfere with the host immune response and also manipulate host development to suit their own needs. In addition, parasitoids must coordinate their own development with that of their host. Although eggs are deposited under all four instars of B. tabaci, Eretmocerus larvae only penetrate 4th instar B. tabaci nymphs. A pre-penetrating E. mundus first instar was capable of inducing permanent developmental arrest in its host, and upon penetration stimulated its host to produce a capsule (epidermal in origin) in which the parasitoid larva developed. T. vaporariorum and B. tabaci parasitized by E. formosa initiated adult development, and, on occasion, produced abnormal adult wings and eyes. In these systems, the site of parasitoid oviposition depended on the host species, occurring within or pressing into the ventral ganglion in T. vaporariorum and at various locations in B. tabaci. E. formosa's final larval molt is cued by the initiation of adult development in its host. In the T. lauri-E. scapeata system, both the host whitefly and the female parasitoid diapause during most of the year, i.e., from June until the middle of February (T. lauri) or from May until the end of December (E. scapeata). It appears that the growth and development of the insects are directed by the appearance of new, young foliage on Arbutus andrachne, the host tree. When adult female parasitoids emerged in the spring, they laid unfertilized male-producing eggs in whiteflies containing a female parasitoid [autoparasitism (development of male larvae utilizing female parasitoid immatures for nutrition)]. Upon hatching, these male larvae did not diapause, but initiated development, and the adult males that emerged several weeks later mated with available females to produce the next generation of parasitoid females. Thus, the interactions that exist between whiteflies and their parasitoids are complex and can be quite diverse in the various host-parasitoid systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale B Gelman
- Insect Biocontrol Laboratory, USDA, ARS, PSI, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA.
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