A new solution structure of ATP synthase subunit c from thermophilic Bacillus PS3, suggesting a local conformational change for H+-translocation

Strategies for elucidation of the structure and function of the large membrane protein complex, FoF1-ATP synthase, by nuclear magnetic resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) investigation of large membrane proteins requires well-focused questions and critical techniques. Here, research strategies for F_oF₁-ATP synthase, a membrane-embedded molecular motor, are reviewed, focusing on the β-subunit of F₁-ATPase and c-subunit ring of the enzyme. Segmental isotope-labeling provided 89% assignment of the main chain NMR signals of thermophilic Bacillus (T)F₁β-monomer. Upon nucleotide binding to Lys164, Asp252 was shown to switch its hydrogen-bonding partner from Lys164 to Thr165, inducing an open-to-closed bend motion of TF₁β-subunit. This drives the rotational catalysis. The c-ring structure determined by solid-state NMR showed that cGlu56 and cAsn23 of the active site took a hydrogen-bonded closed conformation in membranes. In 505 kDa TF_oF₁, the specifically isotope-labeled cGlu56 and cAsn23 provided well-resolved NMR signals, which revealed that 87% of the residue pairs took a deprotonated open conformation at the F_oa-c subunit interface, whereas they were in the closed conformation in the lipid-enclosed region.

Protein pKa Prediction by Tree-Based Machine Learning

Protonation states of ionizable protein residues modulate many essential biological processes. For correct modeling and understanding of these processes, it is crucial to accurately determine their pKa values. Here, we present four tree-based machine learning models for protein pKa prediction. The four models, Random Forest, Extra Trees, eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM), were trained on three experimental PDB and pKa datasets, two of which included a notable portion of internal residues. We observed similar performance among the four machine learning algorithms. The best model trained on the largest dataset performs 37% better than the widely used empirical pKa prediction tool PROPKA and 15% better than the published result from the pKa prediction method DelPhiPKa. The overall root-mean-square error (RMSE) for this model is 0.69, with surface and buried RMSE values being 0.56 and 0.78, respectively, considering six residue types (Asp, Glu, His, Lys, Cys, and Tyr), and 0.63 when considering Asp, Glu, His, and Lys only. We provide pKa predictions for proteins in human proteome from the AlphaFold Protein Structure Database and observed that 1% of Asp/Glu/Lys residues have highly shifted pKa values close to the physiological pH.

Direct assignment of 13C solid-state NMR signals of TFoF1 ATP synthase subunit c-ring in lipid membranes and its implication for the ring structure

F_oF₁-ATP synthase catalyzes ATP hydrolysis/synthesis coupled with a transmembrane H⁺ translocation in membranes. The F_o c-subunit ring plays a major role in this reaction. We have developed an assignment strategy for solid-state ¹³C NMR (ssNMR) signals of the F_o c-subunit ring of thermophilic Bacillus PS3 (TF_o c-ring, 72 residues), carrying one of the basic folds of membrane proteins. In a ssNMR spectrum of uniformly ¹³C-labeled sample, the signal overlap has been a major bottleneck because most amino acid residues are hydrophobic. To overcome signal overlapping, we developed a method designated as COmplementary Sequential assignment with MInimum Labeling Ensemble (COSMILE). According to this method, we generated three kinds of reverse-labeled samples to suppress signal overlapping. To assign the carbon signals sequentially, two-dimensional C^α(i+1)-C'C^α(i) correlation and dipolar assisted rotational resonance (DARR) experiments were performed under magic-angle sample spinning. On the basis of inter- and intra-residue ¹³C-¹³C chemical shift correlations, 97% of C^α, 97% of C^β and 92% of C' signals were assigned directly from the spectra. Secondary structure analysis predicted a hairpin fold of two helices with a central loop. The effects of saturated and unsaturated phosphatidylcholines on TF_o c-ring structure were examined. The DARR spectra at 15 ms mixing time are essentially similar to each other in saturated and unsaturated lipid membranes, suggesting that TF_o c-rings have similar structures under the different environments. The spectrum of the sample in saturated lipid membranes showed better resolution and structural stability in the gel state. The C-terminal helix was suggested to locate in the outer layer of the c-ring.

How does transmembrane electrochemical potential drive the rotation of Fo motor in an ATP synthase?

While the field of ATP synthase research has a long history filled with landmark discoveries, recent structural works provide us with important insights into the mechanisms that links the proton movement with the rotation of the Fo motor. Here, we propose a mechanism of unidirectional rotation of the Fo complex, which is in agreement with these new structural insights as well as our more general ΔΨ-driving hypothesis of membrane proteins: A proton path in the rotor-stator interface is formed dynamically in concert with the rotation of the Fo rotor. The trajectory of the proton viewed in the reference system of the rotor (R-path) must lag behind that of the stator (S-path). The proton moves from a higher energy site to a lower site following both trajectories simultaneously. The two trajectories meet each other at the transient proton-binding site, resulting in a relative rotation between the rotor and stator. The kinetic energy of protons gained from ΔΨ is transferred to the c-ring as the protons are captured sequentially by the binding sites along the proton path, thus driving the unidirectional rotation of the c-ring. Our ΔΨ-driving hypothesis on Fo motor is an attempt to unveil the robust mechanism of energy conversion in the highly conserved, ubiquitously expressed rotary ATP synthases.

ATP Synthesis by Oxidative Phosphorylation

The F1F0-ATP synthase (EC 3.6.1.34) is a remarkable enzyme that functions as a rotary motor. It is found in the inner membranes of Escherichia coli and is responsible for the synthesis of ATP in response to an electrochemical proton gradient. Under some conditions, the enzyme functions reversibly and uses the energy of ATP hydrolysis to generate the gradient. The ATP synthase is composed of eight different polypeptide subunits in a stoichiometry of α3β3γδεab2c10. Traditionally they were divided into two physically separable units: an F1 that catalyzes ATP hydrolysis (α3β3γδε) and a membrane-bound F0 sector that transports protons (ab2c10). In terms of rotary function, the subunits can be divided into rotor subunits (γεc10) and stator subunits (α3β3δab2). The stator subunits include six nucleotide binding sites, three catalytic and three noncatalytic, formed primarily by the β and α subunits, respectively. The stator also includes a peripheral stalk composed of δ and b subunits, and part of the proton channel in subunit a. Among the rotor subunits, the c subunits form a ring in the membrane, and interact with subunit a to form the proton channel. Subunits γ and ε bind to the c-ring subunits, and also communicate with the catalytic sites through interactions with α and β subunits. The eight subunits are expressed from a single operon, and posttranscriptional processing and translational regulation ensure that the polypeptides are made at the proper stoichiometry. Recent studies, including those of other species, have elucidated many structural and rotary properties of this enzyme.

Active-site structure of the thermophilic Foc-subunit ring in membranes elucidated by solid-state NMR

FoF1-ATP synthase uses the electrochemical potential across membranes or ATP hydrolysis to rotate the Foc-subunit ring. To elucidate the underlying mechanism, we carried out a structural analysis focused on the active site of the thermophilic c-subunit (TFoc) ring in membranes with a solid-state NMR method developed for this purpose. We used stereo-array isotope labeling (SAIL) with a cell-free system to highlight the target. TFoc oligomers were purified using a virtual ring His tag. The membrane-reconstituted TFoc oligomer was confirmed to be a ring indistinguishable from that expressed in E. coli on the basis of the H(+)-translocation activity and high-speed atomic force microscopic images. For the analysis of the active site, 2D (13)C-(13)C correlation spectra of TFoc rings labeled with SAIL-Glu and -Asn were recorded. Complete signal assignment could be performed with the aid of the C(α)i+1-C(α)i correlation spectrum of specifically (13)C,(15)N-labeled TFoc rings. The C(δ) chemical shift of Glu-56, which is essential for H(+) translocation, and related crosspeaks revealed that its carboxyl group is protonated in the membrane, forming the H(+)-locked conformation with Asn-23. The chemical shift of Asp-61 C(γ) of the E. coli c ring indicated an involvement of a water molecule in the H(+) locking, in contrast to the involvement of Asn-23 in the TFoc ring, suggesting two different means of proton storage in the c rings.

Single-molecule analysis of F0F1-ATP synthase inhibited by N,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide

N,N-Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD) is a classical inhibitor of the F0F1-ATP synthase (F0F1), which covalently binds to the highly conserved carboxylic acid of the proteolipid subunit (c subunit) in F0. Although it is well known that DCCD modification of the c subunit blocks proton translocation in F0 and the coupled ATP hydrolysis activity of F1, how DCCD inhibits the rotary dynamics of F0F1 remains elusive. Here, we carried out single-molecule rotation assays to characterize the DCCD inhibition of Escherichia coli F0F1. Upon the injection of DCCD, rotations irreversibly terminated with first order reaction kinetics, suggesting that the incorporation of a single DCCD moiety is sufficient to block the rotary catalysis of the F0F1. Individual molecules terminated at different angles relative to the three catalytic angles of F1, suggesting that DCCD randomly reacts with one of the 10 c subunits. DCCD-inhibited F0F1 sometimes showed transient activation; molecules abruptly rotated and stopped after one revolution at the original termination angle, suggesting that hindrance by the DCCD moiety is released due to thermal fluctuation. To explore the mechanical activation of DCCD-inhibited molecules, we perturbed inhibited molecules using magnetic tweezers. The probability of transient activation increased upon a forward forcible rotation. Interestingly, during the termination F0F1, showed multiple positional shifts, which implies that F1 stochastically changes the angular position of its rotor upon a catalytic reaction. This effect could be caused by balancing the angular positions of the F1 and the F0 rotors, which are connected via elastic elements.

Rational identification of enoxacin as a novel V-ATPase-directed osteoclast inhibitor

Binding between vacuolar H⁺-ATPases (V-ATPases) and microfilaments is mediated by an actin binding domain in the B-subunit. Both isoforms of mammalian B-subunit bind microfilaments with high affinity. A similar actin-binding activity has been demonstrated in the B-subunit of yeast. A conserved “profilin-like” domain in the B-subunit mediates this actin-binding activity, named due to its sequence and structural similarity to an actin-binding surface of the canonical actin binding protein profilin. Subtle mutations in the “profilin-like” domain eliminate actin binding activity without disrupting the ability of the altered protein to associate with the other subunits of V-ATPase to form a functional proton pump. Analysis of these mutated B-subunits suggests that the actin-binding activity is not required for the “housekeeping” functions of V-ATPases, but is important for certain specialized roles. In osteoclasts, the actin-binding activity is required for transport of V-ATPases to the plasma membrane, a prerequisite for bone resorption. A virtual screen led to the identification of enoxacin as a small molecule that bound to the actin-binding surface of the B2-subunit and competitively inhibited B2-subunit and actin interaction. Enoxacin disrupted osteoclastic bone resorption in vitro, but did not affect osteoblast formation or mineralization. Recently, enoxacin was identified as an inhibitor of the virulence of Candidaalbicans and more importantly of cancer growth and metastasis. Efforts are underway to determine the mechanisms by which enoxacin and other small molecule inhibitors of B2 and microfilament binding interaction selectively block bone resorption, the virulence of Candida, cancer growth, and metastasis.

Purification, characterization and reconstitution into membranes of the oligomeric c-subunit ring of thermophilic F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase expressed in Escherichia coli

F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase catalyzes ATP synthesis coupled with proton-translocation across the membrane. The membrane-embedded F(o) portion is responsible for the H(+) translocation coupled with rotation of the oligomeric c-subunit ring, which induces rotation of the γ subunit of F(1). For solid-state NMR measurements, F(o)F(1) of thermophilic Bacillus PS3 (TF(o)F(1)) was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and the intact c-subunit ring (TF(o)c-ring) was isolated by new procedures. One of the key improvement in this purification was the introduction of a His residue to each c-subunit that acts as a virtual His(10)-tag of the c-ring. After solubilization from membranes by sodium deoxycholate, the c-ring was purified by Ni-NTA affinity chromatography, followed by anion-exchange chromatography. The intactness of the isolated c-ring was confirmed by high-resolution clear native PAGE, sedimentation analysis, and H(+)-translocation activity. The isotope-labeled intact TF(o)c-ring was successfully purified in such an amount as enough for solid-state NMR measurements. The isolated TF(o)c-rings were reconstituted into lipid membranes. A solid-state NMR spectrum at a high quality was obtained with this membrane sample, revealing that this purification procedure was suitable for the investigation by solid-state NMR. The purification method developed here can also be used for other physicochemical investigations.

SINGLE PARTICLE ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OF THE MITOCHONDRIAL ATP SYNTHASE

Mitochondrial ATP synthase is a large, membrane-bound protein complex that plays a central role in cellular metabolism. Since the identification of this assembly in micrographs of mitochondrial membranes, electron microscopy has been crucial in elucidating the structure and mechanism of the enzyme. This review addresses the recent use of single particle electron microscopy for structure determination of ATP synthase, including subunit localization, the challenges posed by the protein, and areas in which further work is needed.

Conformational relaxation and water penetration coupled to ionization of internal groups in proteins

Molecular dynamics simulations were used to examine the effects of ionization of internal groups on the structures of eighteen variants of staphylococcal nuclease (SNase) with internal Lys, Asp, or Glu. In most cases the RMSD values of internal ionizable side chains were larger when the ionizable moieties were charged than when they were neutral. Calculations of solvent-accessible surface area showed that the internal ionizable side chains were buried in the protein interior when they were neutral and moved toward crevices and toward the protein-water interface when they were charged. The only exceptions are Lys-36, Lys-62, and Lys-103, which remained buried even after charging. With the exception of Lys-38, the number of internal water molecules surrounding the ionizable group increased upon charging: the average number of water oxygen atoms within the first hydration shell increased by 1.7 for Lys residues, by 5.2 for Asp residues, and by 3.2 for Glu residues. The polarity of the microenvironment of the ionizable group also increased when the groups were charged: the average number of polar atoms of any kind within the first hydration shell increased by 2.7 for Lys residues, by 4.8 for Asp residues, and by 4.0 for Glu residues. An unexpected correlation was observed between the absolute value of the shifts in pK(a) values measured experimentally, and several parameters of structural relaxation: the net difference in the polarity of the microenvironment of the charged and neutral forms of the ionizable groups, the net difference in hydration of the charged and neutral forms of the ionizable groups, and the difference in RMSD values of the charged and neutral forms of the ionizable groups. The effects of ionization of internal groups on the conformation of the backbone were noticeable but mostly small and localized to the area immediately next to the internal ionizable moiety. Some variants did exhibit local unfolding.

Structure analysis of membrane-reconstituted subunit c-ring of E. coli H+-ATP synthase by solid-state NMR

The subunit c-ring of H(+)-ATP synthase (F(o) c-ring) plays an essential role in the proton translocation across a membrane driven by the electrochemical potential. To understand its structure and function, we have carried out solid-state NMR analysis under magic-angle sample spinning. The uniformly [(13)C, (15)N]-labeled F(o) c from E. coli (EF(o) c) was reconstituted into lipid membranes as oligomers. Its high resolution two- and three-dimensional spectra were obtained, and the (13)C and (15)N signals were assigned. The obtained chemical shifts suggested that EF(o) c takes on a hairpin-type helix-loop-helix structure in membranes as in an organic solution. The results on the magnetization transfer between the EF(o) c and deuterated lipids indicated that Ile55, Ala62, Gly69 and F76 were lined up on the outer surface of the oligomer. This is in good agreement with the cross-linking results previously reported by Fillingame and his colleagues. This agreement reveals that the reconstituted EF(o) c oligomer takes on a ring structure similar to the intact one in vivo. On the other hand, analysis of the (13)C nuclei distance of [3-(13)C]Ala24 and [4-(13)C]Asp61 in the F(o) c-ring did not agree with the model structures proposed for the EF(o) c-decamer and dodecamer. Interestingly, the carboxyl group of the essential Asp61 in the membrane-embedded EF(o) c-ring turned out to be protonated as COOH even at neutral pH. The hydrophobic surface of the EF(o) c-ring carries relatively short side chains in its central region, which may allow soft and smooth interactions with the hydrocarbon chains of lipids in the liquid-crystalline state.

Essential arginine residue of the F(o)-a subunit in F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase has a role to prevent the proton shortcut without c-ring rotation in the F(o) proton channel

In F(o)F(1) (F(o)F(1)-ATP synthase), proton translocation through F(o) drives rotation of the oligomer ring of F(o)-c subunits (c-ring) relative to F(o)-a. Previous reports have indicated that a conserved arginine residue in F(o)-a plays a critical role in the proton transfer at the F(o)-a/c-ring interface. Indeed, we show in the present study that thermophilic F(o)F(1s) with substitution of this arginine (aR169) to other residues cannot catalyse proton-coupled reactions. However, mutants with substitution of this arginine residue by a small (glycine, alanine, valine) or acidic (glutamate) residue mediate the passive proton translocation. This translocation requires an essential carboxy group of F(o)-c (cE56) since the second mutation (cE56Q) blocks the translocation. Rotation of the c-ring is not necessary because the same arginine mutants of the 'rotation-impossible' (c(10)-a)F(o)F(1), in which the c-ring and F(o)-a are fused to a single polypeptide, also exhibits the passive proton translocation. The mutant (aR169G/Q217R), in which the arginine residue is transferred to putatively the same topological position in the F(o)-a structure, can block the passive proton translocation. Thus the conserved arginine residue in F(o)-a ensures proton-coupled c-ring rotation by preventing a futile proton shortcut.

Extending the models for iron and sulfur oxidation in the extreme acidophile Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

Background

Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans gains energy from the oxidation of ferrous iron and various reduced inorganic sulfur compounds at very acidic pH. Although an initial model for the electron pathways involved in iron oxidation has been developed, much less is known about the sulfur oxidation in this microorganism. In addition, what has been reported for both iron and sulfur oxidation has been derived from different A. ferrooxidans strains, some of which have not been phylogenetically characterized and some have been shown to be mixed cultures. It is necessary to provide models of iron and sulfur oxidation pathways within one strain of A. ferrooxidans in order to comprehend the full metabolic potential of the pangenome of the genus.

Results

Bioinformatic-based metabolic reconstruction supported by microarray transcript profiling and quantitative RT-PCR analysis predicts the involvement of a number of novel genes involved in iron and sulfur oxidation in A. ferrooxidans ATCC23270. These include for iron oxidation: cup (copper oxidase-like), ctaABT (heme biogenesis and insertion), nuoI and nuoK (NADH complex subunits), sdrA1 (a NADH complex accessory protein) and atpB and atpE (ATP synthetase F0 subunits). The following new genes are predicted to be involved in reduced inorganic sulfur compounds oxidation: a gene cluster (rhd, tusA, dsrE, hdrC, hdrB, hdrA, orf2, hdrC, hdrB) encoding three sulfurtransferases and a heterodisulfide reductase complex, sat potentially encoding an ATP sulfurylase and sdrA2 (an accessory NADH complex subunit). Two different regulatory components are predicted to be involved in the regulation of alternate electron transfer pathways: 1) a gene cluster (ctaRUS) that contains a predicted iron responsive regulator of the Rrf2 family that is hypothesized to regulate cytochrome aa₃ oxidase biogenesis and 2) a two component sensor-regulator of the RegB-RegA family that may respond to the redox state of the quinone pool.

Conclusion

Bioinformatic analysis coupled with gene transcript profiling extends our understanding of the iron and reduced inorganic sulfur compounds oxidation pathways in A. ferrooxidans and suggests mechanisms for their regulation. The models provide unified and coherent descriptions of these processes within the type strain, eliminating previous ambiguity caused by models built from analyses of multiple and divergent strains of this microorganism.

Essentials for ATP synthesis by F1F0 ATP synthases

The majority of cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized by the ubiquitous F(1)F(0) ATP synthase. Power for ATP synthesis derives from an electrochemical proton (or Na(+)) gradient, which drives rotation of membranous F(0) motor components. Efficient rotation not only requires a significant driving force (DeltamuH(+)), consisting of membrane potential (Deltapsi) and proton concentration gradient (DeltapH), but also a high proton concentration at the source P side. In vivo this is maintained by dynamic proton movements across and along the surface of the membrane. The torque-generating unit consists of the interface of the rotating c ring and the stator a subunit. Ion translocation through this unit involves a sophisticated interplay between the c-ring binding sites, the stator arginine, and the coupling ions on both sides of the membrane. c-ring rotation is transmitted to the eccentric shaft gamma-subunit to elicit conformational changes in the catalytic sites of F(1), leading to ATP synthesis.

Backbone relaxation coupled to the ionization of internal groups in proteins: a self-guided Langevin dynamics study

Pathways of structural relaxation triggered by ionization of internal groups in staphylococcal nuclease (SNase) were studied through multiple self-guided Langevin dynamics (SGLD) simulations. Circular dichroism, steady-state Trp fluorescence, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy have shown previously that variants of SNase with internal Glu, Asp, and Lys at positions 66 or 92, and Arg at position 66, exhibit local reorganization or global unfolding when the internal ionizable group is charged. Except for Arg-66, these internal ionizable groups have unusual pKa values and are neutral at physiological pH. The structural trends observed in the simulations are in general agreement with experimental observations. The I92D variant, which unfolds globally upon ionization of Asp-92, in simulations often exhibits extensive hydration of the protein core, and sometimes also significant perturbations of the beta-barrel. In the crystal structure of the V66R variant, the beta1 strand from the beta-barrel is domain-swapped; in the simulations, the beta1 strand is sometimes partially released. The V66K variant, which in solutions shows reorganization of six residues at the C-terminus of helix alpha1 and perturbations in the beta-barrel structure, exhibits fraying of three residues of helix alpha1 in one simulation, and perturbations and partial unfolding of three beta-strands in a few other simulations. In sharp contrast, very small structural changes were observed in simulations of the wild-type protein. The simulations indicate that charging of internal groups frequently triggers penetration of water into the protein interior. The pKa values of Asp-92 and Arg-66 calculated with continuum methods on SGLD-relaxed structures reached the normal values in most simulations. Detailed analysis of accuracy and performance of SGLD demonstrates that SGLD outperforms LD in sampling of alternative protein conformations without loss of the accuracy and level of detail characteristic of regular LD.

GFT projection NMR based resonance assignment of membrane proteins: application to subunit C of E. coli F(1)F (0) ATP synthase in LPPG micelles

G-matrix FT projection NMR spectroscopy was employed for resonance assignment of the 79-residue subunit c of the Escherichia coli F(1)F(0) ATP synthase embedded in micelles formed by lyso palmitoyl phosphatidyl glycerol (LPPG). Five GFT NMR experiments, that is, (3,2)D HNNCO, L-(4,3)D HNNC (alphabeta) C (alpha), L-(4,3)D HNN(CO)C (alphabeta) C (alpha), (4,2)D HACA(CO)NHN and (4,3)D HCCH, were acquired along with simultaneous 3D (15)N, (13)C(aliphatic), (13)C(aromatic)-resolved [(1)H,(1)H]-NOESY with a total measurement time of approximately 43 h. Data analysis resulted in sequence specific assignments for all routinely measured backbone and (13)C(beta) shifts, and for 97% of the side chain shifts. Moreover, the use of two G(2)FT NMR experiments, that is, (5,3)D HN{N,CO}{C (alphabeta) C (alpha)} and (5,3)D {C (alphabeta) C (alpha)}{CON}HN, was explored to break the very high chemical shift degeneracy typically encountered for membrane proteins. It is shown that the 4D and 5D spectral information obtained rapidly from GFT and G(2)FT NMR experiments enables one to efficiently obtain (nearly) complete resonance assignments of membrane proteins.

Fluid mechanical matching of H+-ATP synthase subunit c-ring with lipid membranes revealed by 2H solid-state NMR

The F(1)F(o)-ATP synthase utilizes the transmembrane H(+) gradient for the synthesis of ATP. F(o) subunit c-ring plays a key role in transporting H(+) through F(o) in the membrane. We investigated the interactions of Escherichia coli subunit c with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC-d(54)) at lipid/protein ratios of 50:1 and 20:1 by means of (2)H-solid-state NMR. In the liquid-crystalline state of DMPC, the (2)H-NMR moment values and the order parameter (S(CD)) profile were little affected by the presence of subunit c, suggesting that the bilayer thickness in the liquid-crystalline state is matched to the transmembrane hydrophobic surface of subunit c. On the other hand, hydrophobic mismatch of subunit c with the lipid bilayer was observed in the gel state of DMPC. Moreover, the viscoelasticity represented by a square-law function of the (2)H-NMR relaxation was also little influenced by subunit c in the fluid phase, in contrast with flexible nonionic detergents or rigid additives. Thus, the hydrophobic matching of the lipid bilayer to subunit c involves at least two factors, the hydrophobic length and the fluid mechanical property. These findings may be important for the torque generation in the rotary catalytic mechanism of the F(1)F(o)-ATPse molecular motor.

The structure and function of mitochondrial F1F0-ATP synthases

We review recent advances in understanding of the structure of the F(1)F(0)-ATP synthase of the mitochondrial inner membrane (mtATPase). A significant achievement has been the determination of the structure of the principal peripheral or stator stalk components bringing us closer to achieving the Holy Grail of a complete 3D structure for the complex. A major focus of the field in recent years has been to understand the physiological significance of dimers or other oligomer forms of mtATPase recoverable from membranes and their relationship to the structure of the cristae of the inner mitochondrial membrane. In addition, the association of mtATPase with other membrane proteins has been described and suggests that further levels of functional organization need to be considered. Many reports in recent years have concerned the location and function of ATP synthase complexes or its component subunits on the external surface of the plasma membrane. We consider whether the evidence supports complete complexes being located on the cell surface, the biogenesis of such complexes, and aspects of function especially related to the structure of mtATPase.

Interaction of transmembrane helices in ATP synthase subunit a in solution as revealed by spin label difference NMR

Subunit a in the membrane traversing F0 sector of Escherichia coli ATP synthase is known to fold with five transmembrane helices (TMHs) with residue 218 in TMH IV packing close to residue 248 in TMH V. In this study, we have introduced a spin label probe at Cys residues substituted at positions 222 or 223 and measured the effects on the Trp epsilon NH indole NMR signals of the seven Trp residues in the protein. The protein was purified and NMR experiments were carried out in a chloroform-methanol-H2O (4:4:1) solvent mixture. The spin label at positions 222 or 223 proved to broaden the signals of W231, W232, W235 and W241 located at the periplasmic ends of TMH IV and TMH V and the connecting loop between these helices. The broadening of W241 would require that the loop residues fold back on themselves in a hairpin-like structure much like it is predicted to fold in the native membrane. Placement of the spin label probe at several other positions also proved to have broadening effects on some of these Trp residues and provided additional constraints on folding of TMH IV and TMH V. The effects of the 223 probes on backbone amide resonances of subunit a were also measured by an HNCO experiment and the results are consistent with the two helices folding back on themselves in this solvent mixture. When Cys and Trp were substituted at residues 206 and 254 at the cytoplasmic ends of TMHs IV and V respectively, the W254 resonance was not broadened by the spin label at position 206. We conclude that the helices fold back on themselves in this solvent system and then pack at an angle such that the cytoplasmic ends of the polypeptide backbone are significantly displaced from each other.

Fluidity of structure and swiveling of helices in the subunit c ring of Escherichia coli ATP synthase as revealed by cysteine-cysteine cross-linking

Subunit c in the membrane-traversing F(0) sector of Escherichia coli ATP synthase is known to fold with two transmembrane helices and form an oligomeric ring of 10 or more subunits in the membrane. Models for the E. coli ring structure have been proposed based upon NMR solution structures and intersubunit cross-linking of Cys residues in the membrane. The E. coli models differ from the recent x-ray diffraction structure of the isolated Ilyobacter tartaricus c-ring. Furthermore, key cross-linking results supporting the E. coli model prove to be incompatible with the I. tartaricus structure. To test the applicability of the I. tartaricus model to the E. coli c-ring, we compared the cross-linking of a pair of doubly Cys substituted c-subunits, each of which was compatible with one model but not the other. The key finding of this study is that both A21C/M65C and A21C/I66C doubly substituted c-subunits form high yield oligomeric structures, c(2), c(3)... c(10), via intersubunit disulfide bond formation. The results indicate that helical swiveling, with resultant interconversion of the two conformers predicted by the E. coli and I. tartaricus models, must be occurring over the time course of the cross-linking experiment. In the additional experiments reported here, we tried to ascertain the preferred conformation in the membrane to help define the most likely structural model. We conclude that both structures must be able to form in the membrane, but that the helical swiveling that promotes their interconversion may not be necessary during rotary function.

Solvation of Transmembrane Proteins by Isotropic Membrane Mimetics: A Molecular Dynamics Study

Mixtures of organic solvents are often used as membrane mimetics in structure determination of transmembrane proteins by solution NMR; however, the mechanism through which these isotropic solvents mimic the anisotropic environment of cell membranes is not known. Here, we use molecular dynamics simulations to study the solvation thermodynamics of the c-subunit of Escherichia coli F1F0 ATP synthase in membrane mimetic mixtures of methanol, chloroform, and water with varying fractions of components as well as in lipid bilayers. We show that the protein induces a local phase separation of the solvent components into hydrophobic and hydrophilic layers, which provides the anisotropic solvation environment to stabilize the amphiphilic peptide. The extent of this effect varies with solvent composition and is most pronounced in the ternary methanol-chloroform-water mixtures. Analysis of the solvent structure, including the local mole fraction, density profiles, and pair distribution functions, reveals considerable variation among solvent mixtures in the solvation environment surrounding the hydrophobic transmembrane region of the protein. Hydrogen bond analysis indicates that this is primarily driven by the hydrogen-bonding propensity of the essential Asp(61) residue. The impact of the latter on the conformational stability of the solvated protein is discussed. Comparison with the simulations in explicit all-atom models of lipid bilayer indicates a higher flexibility and reduced structural integrity of the membrane mimetic solvated c-subunit. This was particularly true for the deprotonated form of the protein and found to be linked to solvent stabilization of the charged Asp(61).

The rigid connecting loop stabilizes hairpin folding of the two helices of the ATP synthase subunit c

We have tested the role of the polar loop of subunit c of the Escherichia coli ATP synthase in stabilizing the hairpin structure of this protein. The structure of the c(32-52) peptide corresponding to the cytoplasmic region of subunit c bound to the dodecylphosphocholine micelles was solved by high-resolution NMR. The region comprising residues 41-47 forms a well-ordered structure rather similar to the conformation of the polar loop region in the solution structure of the full-length subunit c and is flanked by short alpha-helical segments. This result suggests that the rigidity of the polar loop significantly contributes to the stability of the hairpin formed by the two helices of subunit c. This experimental system may be useful for NMR studies of interactions between subunit c and subunits gamma and epsilon, which together form the rotor of the ATP synthase.

A sodium ion-dependent A1AO ATP synthase from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus

The rotor subunit c of the A(1)A(O) ATP synthase of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus contains a conserved Na(+)-binding motif, indicating that Na(+) is a coupling ion. To experimentally address the nature of the coupling ion, we isolated the enzyme by detergent solubilization from native membranes followed by chromatographic separation techniques. The entire membrane-embedded motor domain was present in the preparation. The rotor subunit c was found to form an SDS-resistant oligomer. Under the conditions tested, the enzyme had maximal activity at 100 degrees C, had a rather broad pH optimum between pH 5.5 and 8.0, and was inhibited by diethystilbestrol and derivatives thereof. ATP hydrolysis was strictly dependent on Na(+), with a K(m) of 0.6 mM. Li(+), but not K(+), could substitute for Na(+). The Na(+) dependence was less pronounced at higher proton concentrations, indicating competition between Na(+) and H(+) for a common binding site. Moreover, inhibition of the ATPase by N',N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide could be relieved by Na(+). Taken together, these data demonstrate the use of Na(+) as coupling ion for the A(1)A(O) ATP synthase of Pyrococcus furiosus, the first Na(+) A(1)A(O) ATP synthase described.

Strategies for dealing with conformational sampling in structural calculations of flexible or kinked transmembrane peptides

Peptides corresponding to transmembrane (TM) segments from membrane proteins provide a potential route for the determination of membrane protein structure. We have determined that 2 functionally critical TM segments from the mammalian Na+/H+ exchanger display well converged structure in regions separated by break points. The flexibility of these break points results in conformational sampling in solution. A brief review of available NMR structures of helical membrane proteins demonstrates that there are a number of published structures showing similar properties. Such flexibility is likely indicative of kinks in the full-length protein. This minireview focuses on methods and protocols for NMR structure calculation and analysis of peptide structures under conditions of conformational sampling. The methods outlined allow the identification and analysis of structured peptides containing break points owing to conformational sampling and the differentiation between oligomerization and ensemble-averaged observation of multiple peptide conformations.

Signal assignment and secondary structure analysis of a uniformly [13C, 15N]-labeled membrane protein, H +-ATP synthase subunit c, by magic-angle spinning solid-state NMR

Signal assignment and secondary structural analysis of uniformly [13C, 15N] labeled H+-ATP synthase subunit c from E. coli (79 residues) in the solid state were carried out by two- and three-dimensional solid-state NMR under magic-angle spinning. The protein took on a unique structure even in the solid state from the 13C linewidths of about 1.7 ppm. On the basis of several inter- and intra-residue 13C-13C and 13C-15N chemical shift correlations, 78% of Calpha, 72% of Cbeta, 62% of C' and 61% of NH signals were assigned, which provided the secondary structure information for 84% of the 79 residues. Here, inter-residue correlations involving Gly, Ala, Pro and side-chains and a higher resolution in the 3D spectrum were significantly useful for the sequence specific assignment. On top of this, the 13C-13C correlation spectra of subunit c was analyzed by reproducing experimental cross peaks quantitatively with chemical shift prediction and signal-intensity calculation based on the structure. It revealed that the subunit c in the solid state could be specified by alpha-helices with a loop structure in the middle (at sequence 41-45) as in the case of the solution structure in spite of additional extended conformations at 76-79 at the C-terminus.