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Niezgoda A, Winnicki A, Krysiński J, Niezgoda P, Nowowiejska L, Czajkowski R. Topical application of simvastatin acid sodium salt and atorvastatin calcium salt in vitiligo patients. Results of the randomized, double-blind EVRAAS pilot study. Sci Rep 2024; 14:14612. [PMID: 38918590 PMCID: PMC11199485 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-65722-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Contemporary treatment of vitiligo remains a great challenge to practitioners. The vast majority of currently conducted clinical trials of modern therapeutic methods are focused on systemic medications, while there is only a very limited number of reports on new topical treatment in vitiligo. With their pleiotropic activities statins turned out to be efficient in the treatment of various autoimmune/autoinflammatory disorders. The randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study of topical administration of the active forms of simvastatin and atorvastatin has been designed to evaluate their efficacy in patients with vitiligo. The study was registered in clinicaltrials.gov (registration number NCT03247400, date of registration: 11th August 2017). A total of 24 patients with the active form of non-segmental vitiligo were enrolled in the study. The change of absolute area of skin lesions, body surface area and vitiligo area scoring index were evaluated throughout the 12 week application of ointments containing simvastatin and atorvastatin. Measurements were performed with planimetry and processed using digital software. Use of active forms of simvastatin and atorvastatin did not result in a significant repigmentation of the skin lesions throughout the study period. Within the limbs treated with topical simvastatin, inhibition of disease progression was significantly more frequent than in the case of placebo (p = 0.004), while the difference was not statistically significant for atorvastatin (p = 0.082). Further studies of topical simvastatin in vitiligo patients should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Niezgoda
- T. Browicz Provincial Observation and Infectious Diseases Hospital Anna Niezgoda, Gajowa 78/17, 85-087, Bydgoszcz, Poland.
| | - Andrzej Winnicki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Jerzy Krysiński
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Piotr Niezgoda
- Department of Cardiology and Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Laura Nowowiejska
- Department of Cosmetology and Aesthetic Dermatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Rafał Czajkowski
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Faculty of Medicine, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Cuiavian-Pomeranian, Poland
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Nociti V, Romozzi M. The Importance of Managing Modifiable Comorbidities in People with Multiple Sclerosis: A Narrative Review. J Pers Med 2023; 13:1524. [PMID: 38003839 PMCID: PMC10672087 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13111524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, inflammatory, degenerative demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) of unknown etiology that affects individuals in their early adulthood. In the last decade, life expectancy for people with MS (PwMS) has almost equaled that of the general population. This demographic shift necessitates a heightened awareness of comorbidities, especially the ones that can be prevented and modified, that can significantly impact disease progression and management. Vascular comorbidities are of particular interest as they are mostly modifiable health states, along with voluntary behaviors, such as smoking and alcohol consumption, commonly observed among individuals with MS. Vascular risk factors have also been implicated in the etiology of cerebral small vessel disease. Furthermore, differentiating between vascular and MS lesion load poses a significant challenge due to overlapping clinical and radiological features. This review describes the current evidence regarding the range of preventable and modifiable comorbidities and risk factors and their implications for PwMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Nociti
- Centro Sclerosi Multipla, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy;
- Dipartimento Universitario di Neuroscienze, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Marina Romozzi
- Centro Sclerosi Multipla, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy;
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Batoee S, Etminaniesfahani M, Mazdeh M, Soltanian A, Nouri F. Evaluation of Rosuvastatin Therapy on SIRT1 Gene Expression in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis: An Uncontrolled Clinical Trial. CURRENT THERAPEUTIC RESEARCH 2023; 99:100718. [PMID: 38021265 PMCID: PMC10630595 DOI: 10.1016/j.curtheres.2023.100718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Background Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease. Current medications have some limitations such as low efficacy and high side effects. In recent years, statins have been raised as potential therapeutics for MS treatment with minimal complications. In addition, patient monitoring using suitable molecular markers is necessary for treatment response evaluation. Objective The aim of the present study was the evaluation of SIRT1 gene expression changes following rosuvastatin therapy in patients with MS. Methods This before-after uncontrolled clinical trial study was performed on 25 patients with MS. Patients were treated with 20 mg rosuvastatin daily for 3 months. The Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) was measured before and after statin therapy. Blood samples were taken from patients 2 times, before and after statin therapy, and centrifuged for white blood cell isolation. Total RNA was extracted using RNX-plus reagent, and complementary DNA was synthesized using Pars Tous cDNA Synthesis Kit. Real-time polymerase chain reaction was done using SYBR blue master mix and gene-specific primers in Roche light cycler. Patients' information was recorded using a checklist. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 23 and Graph Pad version 9 software and P < 0.05 was considered a significant level. Results SIRT1 was significantly upregulated in MS patients after statin therapy. Subsequently, EDSS of patients was decreased along with the increase in SIRT1 gene expression, although EDSS changes were not significant (P > 0.05). Pearson correlation test showed no significant relationship between EDSS and SIRT1 gene expression (P > 0.05). No significant relationship was observed between SIRT1 expression or EDSS levels with patients' age, sex, weight, height, and body mass index and administrated drugs (P > 0.05). Conclusions SIRT1 potentially is a sensitive and reliable biomarker for patients with MS monitoring during statin therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakiba Batoee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Maryam Etminaniesfahani
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Mehrdokht Mazdeh
- Neurophysiology Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Alireza Soltanian
- Modeling of Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Nouri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
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Bhat A, Dalvi H, Jain H, Rangaraj N, Singh SB, Srivastava S. Perspective insights of repurposing the pleiotropic efficacy of statins in neurodegenerative disorders: An expository appraisal. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PHARMACOLOGY AND DRUG DISCOVERY 2021; 2:100012. [PMID: 34909647 PMCID: PMC8663947 DOI: 10.1016/j.crphar.2020.100012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders which affects a larger population pose a great clinical challenge. These disorders impact the quality of life of an individual by damaging the neurons, which are the unit cells of the brain. Clinicians are faced with the grave challenge of inhibiting the progression of these diseases as available treatment options fail to meet the clinical demand. Thus, treating the disease/disorder symptomatically is the Hobson's choice. The goal of the researchers is to introduce newer therapies in this segment and introducing a new molecule will take long years of development. Hence, drug repurposing/repositioning can be a better substitute in comparison to time consuming and expensive drug discovery and development cycle. Presently, a paradigm shift towards the re-purposing of drugs can be witnessed. Statins which have been previously approved as anti-hyperlipidemic agents are in the limelight of research for re-purposed drugs. Owing to their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant nature, statins act as neuroprotective in several brain disorders. Further they attenuate the amyloid plaques and protein aggregation which are the triggering factors in the Alzheimer's and Parkinson's respectively. In case of Huntington disease and Multiple sclerosis they help in improving the psychomotor symptoms and stimulate remyelination thus acting as neuroprotective. This article reviews the potential of statins in treating neurodegenerative disorders along with a brief discussion on the safety concerns associated with use of statins and human clinical trial data linked with re-tasking statins for neurodegenerative disorders along with the regulatory perspectives involved with the drug repositioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Bhat
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Harshita Dalvi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Harsha Jain
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Nagarjun Rangaraj
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Shashi Bala Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Saurabh Srivastava
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
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Kappel S, Borgström A, Stokłosa P, Dörr K, Peinelt C. Store-operated calcium entry in disease: Beyond STIM/Orai expression levels. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2019; 94:66-73. [PMID: 30630032 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Precise intracellular calcium signaling is crucial to numerous cellular functions. In non-excitable cells, store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) is a key step in the generation of intracellular calcium signals. Tight regulation of SOCE is important, and dysregulation is involved in several pathophysiological cellular malfunctions. The current underlying SOCE, calcium release-activated calcium current (ICRAC), was first discovered almost three decades ago. Since its discovery, the molecular components of ICRAC, Orai1 and stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), have been extensively investigated. Several regulatory mechanisms and proteins contribute to alterations in SOCE and cellular malfunctions in cancer, immune and neurodegenerative diseases, inflammation, and neuronal disorders. This review summarizes these regulatory mechanisms, including glycosylation, pH sensing, and the regulatory proteins golli, α-SNAP, SARAF, ORMDL3, CRACR2A, and TRPM4 channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Kappel
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anna Borgström
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Paulina Stokłosa
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Christine Peinelt
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, National Center of Competence in Research NCCR TransCure, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
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Woo JS, Srikanth S, Kim KD, Elsaesser H, Lu J, Pellegrini M, Brooks DG, Sun Z, Gwack Y. CRACR2A-Mediated TCR Signaling Promotes Local Effector Th1 and Th17 Responses. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2018; 201:1174-1185. [PMID: 29987160 PMCID: PMC6081249 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Ca2+ release-activated Ca2+ channel regulator 2A (CRACR2A) is expressed abundantly in T cells and acts as a signal transmitter between TCR stimulation and activation of the Ca2+/NFAT and JNK/AP1 pathways. CRACR2A has been linked to human diseases in numerous genome-wide association studies and was shown to be one of the most sensitive targets of the widely used statin drugs. However, the physiological role of CRACR2A in T cell functions remains unknown. In this study, using transgenic mice for tissue-specific deletion, we show that CRACR2A promotes Th1 responses and effector function of Th17 cells. CRACR2A was abundantly expressed in Th1 and Th17 cells. In vitro, deficiency of CRACR2A decreased Th1 differentiation under nonpolarizing conditions, whereas the presence of polarizing cytokines compensated this defect. Transcript analysis showed that weakened TCR signaling by deficiency of CRACR2A failed to promote Th1 transcriptional program. In vivo, conditional deletion of CRACR2A in T cells alleviated Th1 responses to acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection and imparted resistance to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Analysis of CNS from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced mice showed impaired effector functions of both Th1 and Th17 cell types, which correlated with decreased pathogenicity. Collectively, our findings demonstrate the requirement of CRACR2A-mediated TCR signaling in Th1 responses as well as pathogenic conversion of Th17 cells, which occurs at the site of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Seok Woo
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Sonal Srikanth
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Kyun-Do Kim
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095
| | - Heidi Elsaesser
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2M9, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2M9, Canada
| | - Jing Lu
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095; and
| | - Matteo Pellegrini
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095; and
| | - David G Brooks
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2M9, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 2M9, Canada
| | - Zuoming Sun
- Division of Molecular Immunology, Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010
| | - Yousang Gwack
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095;
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7
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Abstract
More than 60 Rab GTPases exist in the human genome to regulate vesicle trafficking between organelles. Rab GTPases are members of the Ras GTPase superfamily that broadly control budding, uncoating, motility and fusion of vesicles in most cell types. Rab proteins interconvert between active, GTP-bound form and inactive, GDP-bound form. In their active conformation, they interact with various effector molecules to carry out diverse functions. Rab GTPases are usually small containing only a GTPase domain with a C-terminal prenylation site for membrane anchoring. Recently, we identified a large G protein, CRACR2A (CRAC channel regulator 2A), which uncovers novel functions of Rab GTPases. First, CRACR2A encodes a large Rab GTPase containing multiple functional domains contrary to small Rab GTPases. Second, CRACR2A plays an unexpected role in regulating intracellular signaling pathways important for T cell activation, unlike the canonical role of small Rab GTPases. Vesicles containing CRACR2A bud out from the proximal Golgi area and translocate into the immunological synapse to activate these signaling pathways. Third, instead of recycling, CRACR2A is consumed by a unidirectional pathway. These events are sequentially regulated by prenylation, GTP binding, protein interaction with a signaling adaptor Vav1, and degradation. Together, our findings reveal a novel function of a large Rab GTPase in intracellular signaling pathways, which may be shared by other large Rab GTPases, Rab44 and Rab45.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonal Srikanth
- a Department of Physiology , David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Jin Seok Woo
- a Department of Physiology , David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Yousang Gwack
- a Department of Physiology , David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA , Los Angeles , CA , USA
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A Personalized Approach in Progressive Multiple Sclerosis: The Current Status of Disease Modifying Therapies (DMTs) and Future Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17101725. [PMID: 27763513 PMCID: PMC5085756 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17101725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Using the term of progressive multiple sclerosis (PMS), we considered a combined population of persons with secondary progressive MS (SPMS) and primary progressive MS (PPMS). These forms of MS cannot be challenged with efficacy by the licensed therapy. In the last years, several measures of risk estimation were developed for predicting clinical course in MS, but none is specific for the PMS forms. Personalized medicine is a therapeutic approach, based on identifying what might be the best therapy for an individual patient, taking into account the risk profile. We need to achieve more accurate estimates of useful predictors in PMS, including unconventional and qualitative markers which are not yet currently available or practicable routine diagnostics. The evaluation of an individual patient is based on the profile of disease activity.Within the neurology field, PMS is one of the fastest-moving going into the future.
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Kretzschmar B, Pellkofer H, Weber MS. The Use of Oral Disease-Modifying Therapies in Multiple Sclerosis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2016; 16:38. [PMID: 26944956 DOI: 10.1007/s11910-016-0639-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Three oral disease-modifying drugs-fingolimod, teriflunomide, and dimethyl fumarate (DMF)-are available for treatment of relapsing forms of multiple sclerosis (MS). All three agents were approved in the last decade, primarily on the basis of a moderate to substantial reduction in the occurrence of MS relapses and central nervous system lesion formation detected by MRI. In the trials leading to approval, the first oral disease-modifying drug, fingolimod, reduced the annualized relapse rate (ARR) from 0.40 in placebo-treated patients to 0.18 (FREEDOMS) and from 0.33 in patients treated with interferon β1a intramuscularly to 0.16 (TRANSFORMS). Teriflunomide, approved on the basis of the two placebo-controlled trials TEMSO and TOWER, demonstrated a reduction in the ARR from 0.54 to 0.37 and from 0.50 to 0.32 respectively. The latest oral MS medication, approved in 2014, is DMF, which had been used in a different formulation for treatment of psoriasis for decades. In the 2-year DEFINE study, the proportion of patients with a relapse was reduced to 27 %, compared with 46 % in placebo arm, whereas in the CONFIRM trial, the ARR was reduced from 0.40 (placebo) to 0.22 in the DMF-treated group of patients. In this review, we will elucidate the mechanisms of action of these three medications and compare their efficacy, safety, and tolerability as a practical guideline for their use. We will further discuss effects other than relapse reduction these small molecules may exert, including potential activities within the central nervous system, and briefly summarize emerging data on new oral MS drugs in clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Kretzschmar
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Doctor's Office Knaak/Christmann/Wüstenhagen of Neurology and Psychiatry, 34346, Hann. Münden, Germany
| | - Hannah Pellkofer
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Martin S Weber
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, 37075, Göttingen, Germany.
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Medical Center, 37075, Göttingen, Germany.
- Department of Neuropathology, Department of Neurology, University Medical Center, Georg August University, Robert-Koch-Str. 40, 37099, Göttingen, Germany.
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Lee MJ, Bing SJ, Choi J, Jang M, Lee G, Lee H, Chang BS, Jee Y, Lee SJ, Cho IH. IKKβ-mediated inflammatory myeloid cell activation exacerbates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by potentiating Th1/Th17 cell activation and compromising blood brain barrier. Mol Neurodegener 2016; 11:54. [PMID: 27450563 PMCID: PMC4957872 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-016-0116-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The inflammatory myeloid cell activation is one of the hallmarks of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), yet the in vivo role of the inflammatory myeloid cell activation in EAE has not been clearly resolved. It is well-known that IKK/NF-κB is a key signaling pathway that regulates inflammatory myeloid activation. Methods We investigated the in vivo role of inflammatory myeloid cell activation in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) peptides-induced EAE using myeloid cell type-specific ikkβ gene conditional knockout-mice (LysM-Cre/IkkβF/F). Results In our study, LysM-Cre/IkkβF/F mice had alleviated clinical signs of EAE corresponding to the decreased spinal demyelination, microglial activation, and immune cell infiltration in the spinal cord, compared to the wild-type mice (WT, IkkβF/F). Myeloid ikkβ gene deletion significantly reduced the percentage of CD4+/IFN-γ+ (Th1) and CD4+/IL-17+ (Th17) cells but increased the percentages of CD4+/CD25+/Foxp3+ (Treg) cells in the spinal cord and lymph nodes, corresponding to the altered mRNA expression of IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-23, and Foxp3 in the spinal cords of LysM-Cre/IkkβF/F EAE mice. Also, the beneficial effect of myeloid IKKβ deletion in EAE corresponded to the decreased permeability of the blood brain barrier (BBB). Conclusions Our findings strongly suggest that IKK/NF-kB-induced myeloid cell activation exacerbates EAE by activating Th1 and Th17 responses and compromising the BBB. The development of NF-κB inhibitory agents with high efficacy through specific targeting of IKKβ in myeloid cells might be of therapeutic potential in MS and other autoimmune disorders. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13024-016-0116-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Jung Lee
- Department of Convergence Medical Science, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.,Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - So Jin Bing
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju, 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Jonghee Choi
- Department of Convergence Medical Science, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.,Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Minhee Jang
- Department of Convergence Medical Science, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Gihyun Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunkyoung Lee
- Department of Neuroscience and Dental Research Institute, School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Soo Chang
- Department of Cosmetology, Hanseo University, Seosan, 31962, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngheun Jee
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju, 63243, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Joong Lee
- Department of Neuroscience and Dental Research Institute, School of Dentistry, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
| | - Ik-Hyun Cho
- Department of Convergence Medical Science, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea. .,Brain Korea 21 Plus Program, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea. .,Institute of Korean Medicine, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
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11
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Conway DS, Thompson NR, Cohen JA. Influence of hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, and obstructive lung disease on multiple sclerosis disease course. Mult Scler 2016; 23:277-285. [DOI: 10.1177/1352458516650512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: Comorbidities are known to affect multiple sclerosis (MS) patients in a number of ways, including delaying time to diagnosis and reducing health-related quality of life. Objective: To determine the impact of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, and obstructive lung disease on disease course in MS patients. Methods: The Knowledge Program is a database linked to our electronic medical record allowing capture of patient and clinician reported outcomes. Through Knowledge Program query and chart review, we identified all relapsing-remitting MS patients seen between 1 January 2010 and 29 May 2012 and acquired their magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) results and comorbidities. Linear and logistic regression models with adjustment for important covariates were used to determine whether the comorbidities affected outcomes over a 3-year period. Results: Hypertension, diabetes, and obstructive lung disease, but not hyperlipidemia, impacted clinical outcomes, including walking speed, self-reported disability, and depression. Hypertension had the greatest effect. The presence of multiple comorbidities had a cumulative effect on clinical outcomes. MRI outcomes were unaffected by comorbidities. Conclusion: This 3-year longitudinal study revealed that all comorbidities tested except hyperlipidemia impacted clinical outcomes and a cumulative effect with multiple comorbidities was observed. Consideration of comorbid conditions is essential in MS patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devon S Conway
- Mellen Center for Multiple Sclerosis Treatment and Research, Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Nicolas R Thompson
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation, Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Jeffrey A Cohen
- Mellen Center for Multiple Sclerosis Treatment and Research, Neurological Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, USA
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12
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Abstract
More than 60 Rab GTPases exist in the human genome to regulate vesicle trafficking between organelles. Rab GTPases are members of the Ras GTPase superfamily that broadly control budding, uncoating, motility and fusion of vesicles in most cell types. Rab proteins interconvert between active, GTP-bound form and inactive, GDP-bound form. In their active conformation, they interact with various effector molecules to carry out diverse functions. Rab GTPases are usually small containing only a GTPase domain with a C-terminal prenylation site for membrane anchoring. Recently, we identified a large G protein, CRACR2A (CRAC channel regulator 2A), which uncovers novel functions of Rab GTPases. First, CRACR2A encodes a large Rab GTPase containing multiple functional domains contrary to small Rab GTPases. Second, CRACR2A plays an unexpected role in regulating intracellular signaling pathways important for T cell activation, unlike the canonical role of small Rab GTPases. Vesicles containing CRACR2A bud out from the proximal Golgi area and translocate into the immunological synapse to activate these signaling pathways. Third, instead of recycling, CRACR2A is consumed by a unidirectional pathway. These events are sequentially regulated by prenylation, GTP binding, protein interaction with a signaling adaptor Vav1, and degradation. Together, our findings reveal a novel function of a large Rab GTPase in intracellular signaling pathways, which may be shared by other large Rab GTPases, Rab44 and Rab45.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonal Srikanth
- a Department of Physiology , David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Jin Seok Woo
- a Department of Physiology , David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA , Los Angeles , CA , USA
| | - Yousang Gwack
- a Department of Physiology , David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA , Los Angeles , CA , USA
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13
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Takeno A, Kanazawa I, Tanaka KI, Notsu M, Yokomoto-Umakoshi M, Sugimoto T. Simvastatin rescues homocysteine-induced apoptosis of osteocytic MLO-Y4 cells by decreasing the expressions of NADPH oxidase 1 and 2. Endocr J 2016; 63:389-95. [PMID: 26842590 DOI: 10.1507/endocrj.ej15-0480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical studies have shown that hyperhomocysteinemia is associated with bone fragility. Homocysteine (Hcy) induces apoptosis of osteoblastic cell lineage by increasing oxidative stress, which may contribute to Hcy-induced bone fragility. Statins, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors, ameliorate oxidative stress by regulating oxidant and anti-oxidant enzymes. However, the effects of statins on Hcy-induced apoptosis of osteocytes are unknown. This study was thus aimed to investigate whether or not statins prevent Hcy-induced apoptosis of osteocytic MLO-Y4 cells and regulate NADPH oxidase (Nox) expression. TUNEL staining showed that 5 mM Hcy induced apoptosis of MLO-Y4 cells, and that co-incubation of 10(-9) or 10(-8) M simvastatin significantly suppressed the apoptotic effect. Moreover, we confirmed the beneficial effect of simvastatin against Hcy's apoptotic effect by using a DNA fragment ELISA assay. However, TUNEL staining showed no significant effects of pravastatin, a hydrophilic statin, on the Hcy-induced apoptosis. Real-time PCR showed that Hcy increased the mRNA expressions of Nox1 and Nox2, whereas simvastatin inhibited the stimulation of Nox1 and Nox2 expressions by Hcy. In contrast, neither Hcy nor simvastatin had any effect on Nox4 expression. These findings indicate that simvastatin prevents the detrimental effects of Hcy on the apoptosis of osteocytes by regulating the expressions of Nox1 and Nox2, suggesting that statins may be beneficial for preventing Hcy-induced osteocyte apoptosis and the resulting bone fragility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayumu Takeno
- Department of Internal Medicine 1, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, Izumo 693-8501, Japan
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14
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Srikanth S, Kim KD, Gao Y, Woo JS, Ghosh S, Calmettes G, Paz A, Abramson J, Jiang M, Gwack Y. A large Rab GTPase encoded by CRACR2A is a component of subsynaptic vesicles that transmit T cell activation signals. Sci Signal 2016; 9:ra31. [PMID: 27016526 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aac9171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
More than 60 members of the Rab family of guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) exist in the human genome. Rab GTPases are small proteins that are primarily involved in the formation, trafficking, and fusion of vesicles. We showed thatCRACR2A(Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) channel regulator 2A) encodes a lymphocyte-specific large Rab GTPase that contains multiple functional domains, including EF-hand motifs, a proline-rich domain (PRD), and a Rab GTPase domain with an unconventional prenylation site. Through experiments involving gene silencing in cells and knockout mice, we demonstrated a role for CRACR2A in the activation of the Ca(2+) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathways in response to T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation. Vesicles containing this Rab GTPase translocated from near the Golgi to the immunological synapse formed between a T cell and a cognate antigen-presenting cell to activate these signaling pathways. The interaction between the PRD of CRACR2A and the guanidine nucleotide exchange factor Vav1 was required for the accumulation of these vesicles at the immunological synapse. Furthermore, we demonstrated that GTP binding and prenylation of CRACR2A were associated with its localization near the Golgi and its stability. Our findings reveal a previously uncharacterized function of a large Rab GTPase and vesicles near the Golgi in TCR signaling. Other GTPases with similar domain architectures may have similar functions in T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonal Srikanth
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Kyun-Do Kim
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yuanyuan Gao
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Jin Seok Woo
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Shubhamoy Ghosh
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Guillaume Calmettes
- Department of Medicine (Cardiology), David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Aviv Paz
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Jeff Abramson
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Meisheng Jiang
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Yousang Gwack
- Department of Physiology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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15
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Shirani A, Okuda DT, Stüve O. Therapeutic Advances and Future Prospects in Progressive Forms of Multiple Sclerosis. Neurotherapeutics 2016; 13:58-69. [PMID: 26729332 PMCID: PMC4720678 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-015-0409-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Identifying effective therapies for the treatment of progressive forms of multiple sclerosis (MS) is a highly relevant priority and one of the greatest challenges for the global MS community. Better understanding of the mechanisms involved in progression of the disease, novel trial designs, drug repurposing strategies, and new models of collaboration may assist in identifying effective therapies. In this review, we discuss various therapies under study in phase II or III trials, including antioxidants (idebenone); tyrosine kinase inhibitors (masitinib); sphingosine receptor modulators (siponimod); monoclonal antibodies (anti-leucine-rich repeat and immunoglobulin-like domain containing neurite outgrowth inhibitor receptor-interacting protein-1, natalizumab, ocrelizumab, intrathecal rituximab); hematopoetic stem cell therapy; statins and other possible neuroprotective agents (amiloride, riluzole, fluoxetine, oxcarbazepine); lithium; phosphodiesterase inhibitors (ibudilast); hormone-based therapies (adrenocorticotrophic hormone and erythropoietin); T-cell receptor peptide vaccine (NeuroVax); autologous T-cell immunotherapy (Tcelna); MIS416 (a microparticulate immune response modifier); dopamine antagonists (domperidone); and nutritional supplements, including lipoic acid, biotin, and sunphenon epigallocatechin-3-gallate (green tea extract). Given ongoing and planned clinical trial initiatives, and the largest ever focus of the global research community on progressive MS, future prospects for developing targeted therapeutics aimed at reducing disability in progressive forms of MS appear promising.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afsaneh Shirani
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Darin T Okuda
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, Clinical Center for Multiple Sclerosis, Multiple Sclerosis and Neuroimmunology Imaging Program, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
| | - Olaf Stüve
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA.
- Neurology Section, VA North Texas Health Care System, Medical Service, Dallas VA Medical Center, Dallas, TX, 75216, USA.
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Simvastatin ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inhibiting Th1/Th17 response and cellular infiltration. Inflammopharmacology 2015; 23:343-54. [PMID: 26559850 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-015-0252-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
AIM Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a CD4(+)-mediated autoimmune pathology of the central nervous system (CNS) that is used as a model for the study of the human neuroinflammatory disease, multiple sclerosis. During the development of EAE, auto-reactive Th1 and Th17 CD4(+) T cells infiltrate the CNS promoting inflammatory cells recruitment, focal inflammation and tissue destruction. In this sense, statins, agents used to lower lipid levels, have recently shown to exert interesting immunomodulatory function. In fact, statins promote a bias towards a Th2 response, which ameliorates the clinical outcome of EAE. Additionally, simvastatin can inhibit Th17 differentiation. However, many other effects exerted on the immune system by statins have yet to be clarified, in particular during neuroinflammation. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of simvastatin on the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. METHODS Mice were immunized with MOG(35-55) and EAE severity was assessed daily and scored using a clinical scale. Cytokine secretion by mononuclear cells infiltrating the CNS was evaluated by flow cytometry. RESULTS Simvastatin (5 mg/kg/day) improved clinical outcome, induced an increase in TGF-β mRNA expression and inhibited IL-6, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, RANTES and MIP-1β secretion (p < 0.05). This was accompanied by a significant decrease in CNS inflammatory mononuclear cell infiltration, with reduced frequencies of both Th1 and Th17 cells. Simvastatin inhibited the proliferation of T lymphocytes co-cultured with primary microglial cells. CONCLUSIONS Simvastatin treatment promotes EAE clinical amelioration by inhibiting T cell proliferation and CNS infiltration by pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells.
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17
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Li XL, Zhang ZC, Zhang B, Jiang H, Yu CM, Zhang WJ, Yan X, Wang MX. Atorvastatin calcium in combination with methylprednisolone for the treatment of multiple sclerosis relapse. Int Immunopharmacol 2014; 23:546-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 09/27/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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18
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Chataway J, Schuerer N, Alsanousi A, Chan D, MacManus D, Hunter K, Anderson V, Bangham CRM, Clegg S, Nielsen C, Fox NC, Wilkie D, Nicholas JM, Calder VL, Greenwood J, Frost C, Nicholas R. Effect of high-dose simvastatin on brain atrophy and disability in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (MS-STAT): a randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet 2014; 383:2213-21. [PMID: 24655729 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62242-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Secondary progressive multiple sclerosis, for which no satisfactory treatment presently exists, accounts for most of the disability in patients with multiple sclerosis. Simvastatin, which is widely used for treatment of vascular disease, with its excellent safety profile, has immunomodulatory and neuroprotective properties that could make it an appealing candidate drug for patients with secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. METHODS We undertook a double-blind, controlled trial between Jan 28, 2008, and Nov 4, 2011, at three neuroscience centres in the UK. Patients aged 18-65 years with secondary progressive multiple sclerosis were randomly assigned (1:1), by a centralised web-based service with a block size of eight, to receive either 80 mg of simvastatin or placebo. Patients, treating physicians, and outcome assessors were masked to treatment allocation. The primary outcome was the annualised rate of whole-brain atrophy measured from serial volumetric MRI. Analyses were by intention to treat and per protocol. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00647348. FINDINGS 140 participants were randomly assigned to receive either simvastatin (n=70) or placebo (n=70). The mean annualised atrophy rate was significantly lower in patients in the simvastatin group (0·288% per year [SD 0·521]) than in those in the placebo group (0·584% per year [0·498]). The adjusted difference in atrophy rate between groups was -0·254% per year (95% CI -0·422 to -0·087; p=0·003); a 43% reduction in annualised rate. Simvastatin was well tolerated, with no differences between the placebo and simvastatin groups in proportions of participants who had serious adverse events (14 [20%] vs nine [13%]). INTERPRETATION High-dose simvastatin reduced the annualised rate of whole-brain atrophy compared with placebo, and was well tolerated and safe. These results support the advancement of this treatment to phase 3 testing. FUNDING The Moulton Foundation [charity number 1109891], Berkeley Foundation [268369], the Multiple Sclerosis Trials Collaboration [1113598], the Rosetrees Trust [298582] and a personal contribution from A Pidgley, UK National Institute of Health Research (NIHR) University College London Hospitals/UCL Biomedical Research Centres funding scheme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Chataway
- National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; Queen Square Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Department of Neuroinflammation, University College London, London, UK; UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK; Imperial College, London, UK.
| | - Nadine Schuerer
- UCL Institiute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Dennis Chan
- Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Brighton, UK
| | - David MacManus
- Queen Square Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Department of Neuroinflammation, University College London, London, UK; UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Kelvin Hunter
- Queen Square Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Department of Neuroinflammation, University College London, London, UK; UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Val Anderson
- Queen Square Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Department of Neuroinflammation, University College London, London, UK; UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Shona Clegg
- UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Casper Nielsen
- UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Nick C Fox
- National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK; UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Jennifer M Nicholas
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK; Imperial College, London, UK; London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Virginia L Calder
- UCL Institiute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK
| | - John Greenwood
- UCL Institiute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Chris Frost
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Richard Nicholas
- Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK; Imperial College, London, UK
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19
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Davaro F, Forde SD, Garfield M, Jiang Z, Halmen K, Tamburro ND, Kurt-Jones E, Fitzgerald KA, Golenbock DT, Wang D. 3-Hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitor (statin)-induced 28-kDa interleukin-1β interferes with mature IL-1β signaling. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:16214-22. [PMID: 24790079 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.571505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple clinical trials have shown that the 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors known as statins have anti-inflammatory effects. However, the underlying molecular mechanism remains unclear. The proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is synthesized as a non-active precursor. The 31-kDa pro-IL-1β is processed into the 17-kDa active form by caspase-1-activating inflammasomes. Here, we report a novel signaling pathway induced by statins, which leads to processing of pro-IL-1β into an intermediate 28-kDa form. This statin-induced IL-1β processing is independent of caspase-1- activating inflammasomes. The 28-kDa form of IL-1β cannot activate interleukin-1 receptor-1 (IL1R1) to signal inflammatory responses. Instead, it interferes with mature IL-1β signaling through IL-1R1 and therefore may dampen inflammatory responses initiated by mature IL-1β. These results may provide new clues to explain the anti-inflammatory effects of statins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Facundo Davaro
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
| | - Sorcha D Forde
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
| | - Mark Garfield
- NIAID, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland 20852
| | - Zhaozhao Jiang
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
| | - Kristen Halmen
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
| | - Nelsy Depaula Tamburro
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
| | - Evelyn Kurt-Jones
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
| | - Katherine A Fitzgerald
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
| | - Douglas T Golenbock
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
| | - Donghai Wang
- From the Division of Infectious Disease and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605 and
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20
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Weber MS, Prod'homme T, Youssef S, Dunn SE, Steinman L, Zamvil SS. Neither T-helper type 2 nor Foxp3+ regulatory T cells are necessary for therapeutic benefit of atorvastatin in treatment of central nervous system autoimmunity. J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:29. [PMID: 24498870 PMCID: PMC3922392 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral atorvastatin has prevented or reversed paralysis in the multiple sclerosis (MS) model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), and reduced development of new MS lesions in clinical trials. Besides inhibiting development of encephalitogenic T cells, atorvastatin treatment of EAE has been associated with an induction of anti-inflammatory myelin-reactive T-helper type (Th)-2 cells. To investigate the clinical significance of atorvastatin-mediated Th2 differentiation, we first evaluated atorvastatin treatment in interleukin (IL)-4 green fluorescent protein-enhanced transcript (4-GET) reporter mice. Atorvastatin treatment failed to induce IL-4-producing Th2 cells in vivo; however, when T cells from atorvastatin-treated 4-GET mice were reactivated in vitro, T cells preferentially differentiated into Th2 cells, while antigen-specific T-cell proliferation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (interferon gamma, IL-17, tumor necrosis factor and IL-12) were reduced. Oral atorvastatin also prevented or reversed EAE in signal transducer and activator of transcription 6-deficient (STAT6−/−) mice, which cannot generate IL-4-producing Th2 cells. Further, atorvastatin treatment did not induce or expand Foxp3+ regulatory T cells in either wild-type or STAT6−/− mice. In vivo proliferation of T cells, as measured by incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine, was inhibited in atorvastatin-treated wild-type and STAT6−/− mice. These data imply that atorvastatin ameliorates central nervous system autoimmune disease primarily by inhibiting proliferation of proinflammatory encephalitogenic T cells, and not simply through induction of anti-inflammatory Th2 cells. This cytostatic effect may be a relevant mechanism of action when considering use of statins in MS and other inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Scott S Zamvil
- Department of Neurology, University of California, 675 Nelson Rising Lane NS-215A, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that is pathologically characterized by inflammatory demyelination and neurodegeneration. Axonal damage, along with neuronal loss, occurs from disease onset and may lead to progressive and permanent disability. In contrast with the inflammatory pathways, the molecular mechanisms leading to MS neurodegeneration remain largely elusive. With improved understanding of these mechanisms, new potential therapeutic targets for neuroprotection have emerged. We review the current understanding of neurodegenerative processes at play in MS and discuss potential outcome measures and targets for neuroprotection trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir-Hadi Maghzi
- Multiple Sclerosis Center, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), 675 Nelson Rising Lane, 2nd floor, Room 221F, Box 3206, 94158, San Francisco, CA, USA,
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Shunmugavel A, Martin MM, Khan M, Copay AG, Subach BR, Schuler TC, Singh I. Simvastatin ameliorates cauda equina compression injury in a rat model of lumbar spinal stenosis. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2013; 8:274-86. [PMID: 23188522 PMCID: PMC3587651 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-012-9419-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. LSS pathology is associated with secondary injury caused by inflammation, oxidative damage and cell death. Apart from laminectomy, pharmacological therapy targeting secondary injury is limited. Statins are FDA-approved cholesterol-lowering drug. They also show pleiotropic anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and neuroprotective effects. To investigate the therapeutic efficacy of simvastatin in restoring normal locomotor function after cauda equina compression (CEC) in a rat model of LSS, CEC injury was induced in rats by implanting silicone gels into the epidural spaces of L4 and L6. Experimental group was treated with simvastatin (5 mg/kg body weight), while the injured (vehicle) and sham operated (sham) groups received vehicle solution. Locomotor function in terms of latency on rotarod was measured for 49 days and the threshold of pain was determined for 14 days. Rats were sacrificed on day 3 and 14 and the spinal cord and cauda equina fibers were extracted and studied by histology, immunofluorescence, electron microscopy (EM) and TUNEL assay. Simvastatin aided locomotor functional recovery and enhanced the threshold of pain after the CEC. Cellular Infiltration and demyelination decreased in the spinal cord from the simvastatin group. EM revealed enhanced myelination of cauda equina in the simvastatin group. TUNEL assay showed significantly decreased number of apoptotic neurons in spinal cord from the simvastatin group compared to the vehicle group. Simvastatin hastens the locomotor functional recovery and reduces pain after CEC. These outcomes are mediated through the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of simvastatin. The data indicate that simvastatin may be a promising drug candidate for LSS treatment in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anandakumar Shunmugavel
- Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, 173 Ashley Avenue, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS), an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS), results from uncontrolled auto reactive T cells that infiltrate the CNS and attack the myelin sheath. Th17 cells play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of MS and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a mouse model of MS. Extensive studies have focused on understanding the roles of cytokine signaling and transcriptional network in the differentiation of Th17 cells and their pathogenicity in CNS inflammation. Aside from these events, activated T cells dynamically reprogram their metabolic pathways to fulfill the bioenergic and biosynthetic requirements for proper T cell functions. Emerging evidence indicates that modulation of these metabolic pathways impinges upon the differentiation of Th17 cells and the pathogenesis of EAE. Thus, a better understanding of the functions and mechanisms of T cell metabolism in Th17 cell biology may provide new avenues for therapeutic targeting of MS. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in our understanding of T cell metabolic pathways involved in Th17 cell differentiation and CNS inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Yang
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Hongbo Chi
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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24
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Silva T, Teixeira J, Remião F, Borges F. Alzheimersche Demenz, Cholesterin und Statine: Berührungspunkte wichtiger Stoffwechselwege. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201204964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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25
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Silva T, Teixeira J, Remião F, Borges F. Alzheimer's disease, cholesterol, and statins: the junctions of important metabolic pathways. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 52:1110-21. [PMID: 23280829 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201204964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have seen a significant increase in published data supporting the positive effects of statins on neurodegenerative diseases, in particular on Alzheimer's disease. Statins show neuroprotective activity by a combination of different cellular and systemic mechanisms that are based on the inhibition of the biosynthesis of cholesterol and isoprenoid by-products. The promising results obtained in vivo and in epidemiological studies are generally not in accordance with those of placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials. Nevertheless, these results make statins valuable assets for disease prevention rather than therapeutic agents for use when disease symptoms are already displayed. Thus, the modulation of midlife cholesterol and/or statin administration prior to the appearance of dementia or cognitive impairment may have a better long-term outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Silva
- CIQ/Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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26
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Butterfield DA, Barone E, Mancuso C. Cholesterol-independent neuroprotective and neurotoxic activities of statins: perspectives for statin use in Alzheimer disease and other age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Pharmacol Res 2011; 64:180-6. [PMID: 21536132 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2011.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Statins, long known to be beneficial in conditions where dyslipidemia occurs by lowering serum cholesterol levels, also have been proposed for use in neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer disease. However, it is not clear that the purported effectiveness of statins in neurodegenerative disorders is directly related to cholesterol-lowering effects of these agents; rather, the pleiotropic functions of statins likely play critical roles. Moreover, it is becoming more apparent with additional studies that statins can have deleterious effects in preclinical studies and lack effectiveness in various recent clinical trials. This perspective paper outlines pros and cons of the use of statins in neurodegenerative disorders, with particular emphasis on Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Allan Butterfield
- Department of Chemistry, Center of Membrane Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.
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27
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van Vliet EA, Holtman L, Aronica E, Schmitz LJM, Wadman WJ, Gorter JA. Atorvastatin treatment during epileptogenesis in a rat model for temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2011; 52:1319-30. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03073.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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28
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Sellner J, Weber MS, Vollmar P, Mattle HP, Hemmer B, Stüve O. The combination of interferon-beta and HMG-CoA reductase inhibition in multiple sclerosis: enthusiasm lost too soon? CNS Neurosci Ther 2011; 16:362-73. [PMID: 20626428 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00179.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies support the notion that statins, widely prescribed cholesterol-lowering agents, may target key elements in the immunological cascade leading to inflammation and tissue damage in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). Compelling experimental and observational clinical studies highlighted the possibility that statins may also exert immunomodulatory synergy with approved MS drugs, resulting in several randomized clinical trials testing statins in combination with interferon-beta (IFN-β). Some data, however, suggest that this particular combination may not be clinically beneficial, and might actually have a negative effect on the disease course in some patients with MS. In this regard, a small North American trial indicated that atorvastatin administered in combination with IFN-β may increase disease activity in relapsing-remitting MS. Although other trials did not confirm this finding, the enthusiasm for studies with statins dwindled. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the completed clinical trials and reports of the interim analyses evaluating the combination of IFN-β and statins in MS. Moreover, we try to address the evident question whether usage of this combination routinely requires caution, since the number of IFN-β-treated MS patients receiving statins for lowering of cholesterol is expected to grow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johann Sellner
- Department of Neurology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, München, Germany.
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Phytosterols ameliorate clinical manifestations and inflammation in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Inflamm Res 2010; 60:457-65. [DOI: 10.1007/s00011-010-0288-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2010] [Revised: 10/15/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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A Sustained Release of Lovastatin from Biodegradable, Elastomeric Polyurethane Scaffolds for Enhanced Bone Regeneration. Tissue Eng Part A 2010; 16:2369-79. [DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2009.0585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Corrêa JODA, Aarestrup BJV, Aarestrup FM. Effect of thalidomide and pentoxifylline on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Exp Neurol 2010; 226:15-23. [PMID: 20406639 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2009] [Revised: 04/07/2010] [Accepted: 04/10/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in Lewis rats is a classical experimental model of demyelinating inflammatory disease of the central nervous system. EAE is widely accepted for study of immune-inflammatory mechanisms in the CNS related to multiple sclerosis (MS) due to similar clinical evolution. OBJECTIVES In the present study we investigated the effects of Thalidomide and pentoxifylline during EAE development in Lewis rats. METHODS EAE was induced in Lewis rats and treatment with Thalidomide or pentoxifylline was performed. Clinical evaluation was carried out daily. Histopathological analysis of the brain tissue and spinal cord was performed. Griess method was used for determination of NO serum levels. TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma serum levels were investigated using ELISA method. RESULTS Thalidomide and pentoxifylline treatment is associated with significant reduction of neuroinflammation in CNS. Serum levels of NO, IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha showed a marked reduction. Such findings were correlated with improvement of clinical symptoms, particularly in thalidomide treated rats. CONCLUSIONS Taken together the data suggested that thalidomide and pentoxifylline may be therapeutic options for the treatment of MS, however further experiments must be performed to investigate this hypothesis.
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Increased immunopotency of monocyte derived dendritic cells from patients with optic neuritis is inhibited in vitro by simvastatin. Exp Neurol 2009; 221:320-8. [PMID: 19948167 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2009] [Revised: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease where myelin-reactive lymphocytes and their activation depend on interactions with antigen presenting cells (APCs). Dendritic cells (DC) are professional APCs dependent on maturation to attain full T-cell priming capacity. The immunomodulatory properties of simvastatin influence the function of both T cells and APCs and could thus be a potential therapy for MS. The phenotype of myeloid DC in untreated patients with monosymptomatic optic neuritis (ON) was determined by flow cytometry and the impact of simvastatin on the function of myeloid DC derived from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) was analysed in vitro. DC from ON patients had more mature phenotype compared with healthy controls (HC). Particularly the fraction of DC expressing CD1a and CD80 was significantly higher in ON than in HC (P<0.05). Addition of 10 muMu simvastatin significantly inhibited the maturation of DC in the ON group. Furthermore, ON derived DC induced stronger T-cell proliferation in the mixed leukocyte reaction (MLR), and simvastatin solely inhibited this proliferation of T-cells in the ON group and not in HC. In conclusion DC from ON patients have a more mature phenotype and an increased stimulatory capacity. Simvastatin has an inhibitory effect on the differentiation and maturation of DC, and selectively reduce the T-cell proliferation induced by DC from patients with ON. The results from these in vitro assays suggest potential beneficial inhibitory effects of Simvastatin in the inflammation in ON and early MS, but we need more clinical trials to confirm it.
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Lisak RP, Benjamins JA, Bealmear B, Nedelkoska L, Studzinski D, Retland E, Yao B, Land S. Differential effects of Th1, monocyte/macrophage and Th2 cytokine mixtures on early gene expression for molecules associated with metabolism, signaling and regulation in central nervous system mixed glial cell cultures. J Neuroinflammation 2009; 6:4. [PMID: 19159481 PMCID: PMC2639549 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-6-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cytokines secreted by immune cells and activated glia play central roles in both the pathogenesis of and protection from damage to the central nervous system (CNS) in multiple sclerosis (MS). METHODS We have used gene array analysis to identify the initial direct effects of cytokines on CNS glia by comparing changes in early gene expression in CNS glial cultures treated for 6 hours with cytokines typical of those secreted by Th1 and Th2 lymphocytes and monocyte/macrophages (M/M). RESULTS In two previous papers, we summarized effects of these cytokines on immune-related molecules, and on neural and glial related proteins, including neurotrophins, growth factors and structural proteins. In this paper, we present the effects of the cytokines on molecules involved in metabolism, signaling and regulatory mechanisms in CNS glia. Many of the changes in gene expression were similar to those seen in ischemic preconditioning and in early inflammatory lesions in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), related to ion homeostasis, mitochondrial function, neurotransmission, vitamin D metabolism and a variety of transcription factors and signaling pathways. Among the most prominent changes, all three cytokine mixtures markedly downregulated the dopamine D3 receptor, while Th1 and Th2 cytokines downregulated neuropeptide Y receptor 5. An unexpected finding was the large number of changes related to lipid metabolism, including several suggesting a switch from diacylglycerol to phosphatidyl inositol mediated signaling pathways. Using QRT-PCR we validated the results for regulation of genes for iNOS, arginase and P glycoprotein/multi-drug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) seen at 6 hours with microarray. CONCLUSION Each of the three cytokine mixtures differentially regulated gene expression related to metabolism and signaling that may play roles in the pathogenesis of MS, most notably with regard to mitochondrial function and neurotransmitter signaling in glia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert P Lisak
- Department of Neurology, 8D University Health Center, Wayne State University School of Medicine, 4201 St Antoine, Detroit, MI, 48210, USA.
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Ulivieri C, Fanigliulo D, Benati D, Pasini FL, Baldari CT. Simvastatin impairs humoral and cell-mediated immunity in mice by inhibiting lymphocyte homing, T-cell activation and antigen cross-presentation. Eur J Immunol 2008; 38:2832-44. [PMID: 18958884 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200838278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Statins block the activity of HMG-CoA reductase, which catalyses the production of mevalonate, an intermediate in cholesterol biosynthesis, which is also a precursor of isoprenoids. In addition to lowering circulating cholesterol, these drugs display anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities in vitro; however, their effects on the development of adaptive immune responses in vivo, as well as the underlying mechanisms, are as yet largely unknown. Here we investigated the outcome of simvastatin treatment on a number of processes, which together orchestrate adaptive immunity to specific antigen. Simvastatin treatment resulted in a marked reduction of T and B cells in spleen, lymph nodes and peripheral blood in mice. This effect could be ascribed principally to an impairment of lymphocyte homing to secondary lymphoid organs. In addition, simvastatin was found to strongly inhibit T-cell responses to the MHCI restricted hen ovalbumin peptide antigen SIINFEKL and to impair ovalbumin uptake and cross-presentation by MHCI. Simvastatin also suppressed antibody responses to immunization with ovalbumin and delayed-type hypersensitivity to allergens. These activities could be largely accounted for by the simvastatin-dependent inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase. The data provide novel mechanistic insight into the activities of simvastatin in the highly complex context of the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Ulivieri
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, Siena, Italy.
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36
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Wang Q, Zengin A, Deng C, Li Y, Newell KA, Yang GY, Lu Y, Wilder-Smith EP, Zhao H, Huang XF. High dose of simvastatin induces hyperlocomotive and anxiolytic-like activities: The association with the up-regulation of NMDA receptor binding in the rat brain. Exp Neurol 2008; 216:132-8. [PMID: 19100736 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2008] [Revised: 11/07/2008] [Accepted: 11/19/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Statins are widely being used for the treatment of a variety of conditions beyond their original indication for lowering cholesterol. We have previously reported that simvastatin affected the dopaminergic system in the rat brain. This study aims to investigate locomotor and anxiety effects along with the regional changes of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the rat brain after 4-week administration of simvastatin. Hyperlocomotive and anxiolytic-like activities in the rat were observed after chronic administration of high dose simvastatin (10 mg/kg/day). Distributions and alterations of NMDA receptors in the post-mortem rat brain were detected by [(3)H] MK-801 binding autoradiography. Simvastatin increased [(3)H] MK-801 binding, predominantly in the prefrontal cortex (20%, p=0.003), primary motor cortex (20%, p<0.001), cingulate cortex (28%, p<0.001), hippocampus (41%, p<0.001), caudate putamen (30%, p=0.029), nucleus accumbens (27%, p=0.035) and amygdala (45%, p<0.001) compared to controls. Significant positive correlations were identified between hyperlocomotive as well as anxiolytic-like activities and the upregulation of NMDA receptors in different brain regions. Our results also provide strong evidence that chronic high dose simvastatin administration is to exhibit NMDA antagonist-like effects, which would partially explain the anxiolytic and hyperlocomotor activities. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the critical roles of simvastatin in modulating psycho-neurodegenerative disorders, via NMDA receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Wang
- Centre for Translational Neuroscience, School of Health Sciences, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
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Lee SJ, Qin H, Benveniste EN. The IFN-gamma-induced transcriptional program of the CIITA gene is inhibited by statins. Eur J Immunol 2008; 38:2325-36. [PMID: 18601229 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200838189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Statins are 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors that exert anti-inflammatory effects. IFN-gamma induction of class II MHC expression, which requires the class II transactivator (CIITA), is inhibited by statins; however, the molecular basis for suppression is undetermined. We describe that statins inhibit IFN-gamma-induced class II MHC expression by suppressing CIITA gene expression, which is dependent on the HMG-CoA reductase pathway. In addition, CIITA expression is inhibited by GGTI-298 or Clostridium difficile Toxin A, specific inhibitors of Rho family protein prenylation, indicating the involvement of small GTPases. Rac1 is involved in IFN-gamma inducible expression of CIITA, and statins inhibit IFN-gamma-induced Rac1 activation, contributing to the inhibitory effect of statins. IFN-gamma induction of the CIITA gene is regulated by the transcription factors STAT-1alpha, interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-1 and upstream stimulatory factor (USF)-1. We previously reported that statins inhibit constitutive STAT-1alpha expression. IRF-1, a STAT-1 dependent gene, is also inhibited by statins. Therefore, statin treatment results in decreased recruitment of STAT-1alpha and IRF-1 to the endogenous CIITA promoter IV (pIV). The recruitment of USF-1 to CIITA pIV is also reduced by statins, as is the recruitment of RNA polymerase II (Pol II), p300 and Brg-1. These data indicate that statins inhibit the transcriptional program of the CIITA gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun J Lee
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0005, USA
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Zhang X, Markovic-Plese S. Statins’ immunomodulatory potential against Th17 cell-mediated autoimmune response. Immunol Res 2008; 41:165-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s12026-008-8019-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Abstract
Overwhelming evidence now shows that 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (ie, statins) are safe and effective in primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis, the primary cause of heart disease, is directly and independently related to hypercholesterolemia and inflammation, and statins have multiple and independent effects on these conditions. New evidence for the use of statins in neurologic disease is mounting, and the range of therapeutic applications is formidable. Statins are beginning to show benefits in a wide range of neurologic conditions, from common ischemic stroke to rare congenital neurometabolic storage diseases, from acute brain injury to chronic central nervous system inflammation, and from prevention of neurodegenerative disease to acute neuroprotection. A diverse therapeutic spectrum is explained by shared pathogenetic mechanisms of neurologic disease and the manifold pharmacodynamic effects of statins.
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Affiliation(s)
- J David Orr
- Neurology Associates of Arlington, 2800 E. Broad Street, Mansfield, TX 76063, USA.
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40
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Sandborg C, Ardoin SP, Schanberg L. Therapy Insight: cardiovascular disease in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 4:258-65. [PMID: 18349862 DOI: 10.1038/ncprheum0789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Accepted: 02/11/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In 15-20% of cases, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) presents before the age of 18 years, and such early-onset SLE seems to be particularly severe. SLE is an independent risk factor for premature atherosclerosis and death in young, premenopausal women with SLE, even after controlling for traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Children and adolescents with SLE are particularly susceptible to this long-term threat to their cardiovascular health because they have an increased disease severity and a lengthy disease burden. Factors that contribute to premature atherosclerosis include the inflammatory and immune abnormalities that are intrinsic to SLE, primary dyslipidemias, and the secondary effects of treatments such as corticosteroids. However, few rheumatologists provide appropriate preventive or management strategies for the increased atherosclerosis risk in this age-group. Screening should be performed on a regular basis, including evaluation of, and counseling for, traditional risk factors. Studies of treatment in pediatric patients are limited, and treatment strategies are often extrapolated from adult studies. Statins hold promise because they have both lipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects. There have been few studies of the use of statins in adults or adolescents with SLE; however, trials are currently underway to address the safety and efficacy of statin use in pediatric SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy Sandborg
- Division of Pediatric Rheumatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Room A085, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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41
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Markovic-Plese S, Singh AK, Singh I. Therapeutic potential of statins in multiple sclerosis: immune modulation, neuroprotection and neurorepair. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2008; 3:153. [PMID: 20107624 DOI: 10.2217/14796708.3.2.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Statins as inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methyl glutaryl coenzyme A reductase are widely used as cholesterol-lowering drugs. Recent studies provide evidence that the anti-inflammatory activity of statins, which is independent of their cholesterol-lowering effects, may have potential therapeutic implications for neuroinflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer's disease and brain tumors, as well as traumatic spinal cord and brain injuries. Studies with animal models of MS suggest that, in addition to immunomodulatory activities similar to the ones observed with approved MS medications, statin treatment also protects the BBB, protects against neurodegeneration and may also promote neurorepair. Although the initial human studies on statin treatment for MS are encouraging, prospective randomized clinical studies will be required to evaluate their efficacy in the larger patient population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silva Markovic-Plese
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Department of Neurology, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Chapel Hill, NC, USA, Tel.: +1 919 966 3701
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Skoglund B. Linköping University Medical Dissertation No. 1033. Following the mevalonate pathway to bone heal alley. ACTA ORTHOPAEDICA. SUPPLEMENTUM 2007; 78:3-22. [PMID: 18283564 DOI: 10.1080/17453670710046549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Björn Skoglund
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Materials in Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
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Comparison of biochemical effects of statins and fish oil in brain: the battle of the titans. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 56:443-71. [PMID: 17959252 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2007] [Revised: 09/16/2007] [Accepted: 09/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Neural membranes are composed of glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, cholesterol and proteins. The distribution of these lipids within the neural membrane is not random but organized. Neural membranes contain lipid rafts or microdomains that are enriched in sphingolipids and cholesterol. These rafts act as platforms for the generation of glycerophospholipid-, sphingolipid-, and cholesterol-derived second messengers, lipid mediators that are necessary for normal cellular function. Glycerophospholipid-derived lipid mediators include eicosanoids, docosanoids, lipoxins, and platelet-activating factor. Sphingolipid-derived lipid mediators include ceramides, ceramide 1-phosphates, and sphingosine 1-phosphate. Cholesterol-derived lipid mediators include 24-hydroxycholesterol, 25-hydroxycholesterol, and 7-ketocholesterol. Abnormal signal transduction processes and enhanced production of lipid mediators cause oxidative stress and inflammation. These processes are closely associated with the pathogenesis of acute neural trauma (stroke, spinal cord injury, and head injury) and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer disease. Statins, the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, are effective lipid lowering agents that significantly reduce risk for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Beneficial effects of statins in neurological diseases are due to their anti-excitotoxic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. Fish oil omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, have similar anti-excitotoxic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in brain tissue. Thus the lipid mediators, resolvins, protectins, and neuroprotectins, derived from eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid retard neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptotic cell death in brain tissue. Like statins, ingredients of fish oil inhibit generation of beta-amyloid and provide protection from oxidative stress and inflammatory processes. Collective evidence suggests that antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties of statins and fish oil contribute to the clinical efficacy of treating neurological disorders with statins and fish oil. We speculate that there is an overlap between neurochemical events associated with neural cell injury in stroke and neurodegenerative diseases. This commentary compares the neurochemical effects of statins with those of fish oil.
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McCandless EE, Klein RS. Molecular targets for disrupting leukocyte trafficking during multiple sclerosis. Expert Rev Mol Med 2007; 9:1-19. [PMID: 17637110 DOI: 10.1017/s1462399407000397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
AbstractAutoimmune diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) involve the migration of abnormal numbers of self-directed leukocytes across the blood–brain barrier that normally separates the CNS from the immune system. The cardinal lesion associated with neuroinflammatory diseases is the perivascular infiltrate, which comprises leukocytes that have traversed the endothelium and have congregated in a subendothelial space between the endothelial-cell basement membrane and the glial limitans. The exit of mononuclear cells from this space can be beneficial, as when virus-specific lymphocytes enter the CNS for pathogen clearance, or might induce CNS damage, such as in the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis when myelin-specific lymphocytes invade and induce demyelinating lesions. The molecular mechanisms involved in the movement of lymphocytes through these compartments involve multiple signalling pathways between these cells and the microvasculature. In this review, we discuss adhesion, costimulatory, cytokine, chemokine and signalling molecules involved in the dialogue between lymphocytes and endothelial cells that leads to inflammatory infiltrates within the CNS, and the targeting of these molecules as therapies for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin E McCandless
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
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Lee SJ, Qin H, Benveniste EN. Simvastatin inhibits IFN-gamma-induced CD40 gene expression by suppressing STAT-1alpha. J Leukoc Biol 2007; 82:436-47. [PMID: 17507688 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1206739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
CD40, a member of the TNF receptor superfamily, is critical for productive immune responses. Macrophages constitutively express CD40 at low levels, which are enhanced by IFN-gamma. IFN-gamma-induced CD40 expression involves activation of STAT-1alpha as well as NF-kappaB activation through an autocrine response to IFN-gamma-induced TNF-alpha production. Statins are 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase inhibitors, which exert anti-inflammatory effects independent of their cholesterol-lowering actions. Herein, we describe that simvastatin (SS) inhibits IFN-gamma-induced CD40 expression via the suppression of STAT-1alpha expression. This results in diminished STAT-1alpha recruitment to the CD40 promoter upon IFN-gamma treatment, in addition to reduced RNA Polymerase II recruitment and diminished levels of H3 and H4 histone acetylation. SS-mediated inhibition of STAT-1alpha occurs through suppression of constitutive STAT-1alpha mRNA and protein expression. The inhibitory effect of SS on CD40 and STAT-1alpha is dependent on HMG-CoA reductase activity, as the addition of mevalonate reverses the inhibitory effect. In addition, CD40 and/or STAT-1alpha expression is inhibited by GGTI-298 or Clostridium difficile Toxin A, a specific inhibitor of Rho family protein prenylation, indicating the involvement of small GTP-binding proteins in this process. Collectively, these data indicate that SS inhibits IFN-gamma-induced CD40 expression by suppression of STAT-1alpha, and altering transcriptional events at the CD40 promoter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun Jung Lee
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294-0005, USA
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Buhaescu I, Izzedine H. Mevalonate pathway: a review of clinical and therapeutical implications. Clin Biochem 2007; 40:575-84. [PMID: 17467679 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2007.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 398] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2006] [Revised: 03/10/2007] [Accepted: 03/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mevalonate pathway is an important metabolic pathway which plays a key role in multiple cellular processes by synthesizing sterol isoprenoids, such as cholesterol, and non-sterol isoprenoids, such as dolichol, heme-A, isopentenyl tRNA and ubiquinone. While extensively studied in regard with cholesterol synthesis and its implications in cardiovascular diseases, in recent years the mevalonate pathway has become a challenging and, in the meantime, fascinating topic, when a large number of experimental and clinical studies suggested that inhibition of non-sterol isoprenoids might have valuable interest in human pathology. These molecules that are essential for cell growth and differentiation appear to be potential interesting therapeutic targets for many areas of ongoing research: oncology, autoimmune disorders, atherosclerosis, and Alzheimer disease. Also, considerable progress has been made in the past decade in understanding the pathophysiology of two auto-inflammatory disorders resulting from an inherited deficiency of mevalonate kinase, the first committed enzyme of the mevalonate pathway. Here we present a brief description of the biochemistry of the mevalonate pathway, together with a review of the current knowledge of the clinical and therapeutical implications of this fascinating and complex metabolic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Buhaescu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Saint Vincent Hospital, Worcester Medical Center, Worcester, MA, USA.
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47
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Giorelli M, Livrea P, Minervini MG, Trojano M. Immunomodulatory properties of increased levels of liver X receptor beta in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from multiple sclerosis patients. Exp Neurol 2007; 204:759-66. [PMID: 17337267 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2006] [Revised: 12/15/2006] [Accepted: 01/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Liver X receptors (LXRalpha and LXRbeta) are nuclear transcription factors that inhibit transcription of genes of inflammation while inducing HMGCoA reductase. In this paper we demonstrate increased mRNA levels of LXRbeta in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from multiple sclerosis patients with respect to other neurological patients and healthy controls (HC) (p<0.01). Agonist-induced activation of LXRs partially counteracts the anti-CD3+ anti-CD28-induced proliferation of T cells (p<0.01) and secretion of IFNgamma (p<0.001) from PBMCs of MS patients as well as of HC. Secretion of IL-4 is not affected. Our findings suggest that regulation of cholesterol metabolism not strictly related to inhibition of HMGCoA reductase can modulate activity of lymphocytes in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Giorelli
- Department of Neurologic and Psychiatric Sciences, University of Bari, and Casa della Divina Provvidenza, Via Bovio 84, Bisceglie, Bari, Italy.
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Zeng Y, Gu B, Ji X, Ding X, Song C, Wu F. Sinomenine, an Antirheumatic Alkaloid, Ameliorates Clinical Signs of Disease in the Lewis Rat Model of Acute Experimental Autoimmune Encephalolmyelitis. Biol Pharm Bull 2007; 30:1438-44. [PMID: 17666800 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.30.1438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The therapeutic value of an antirheumatic alkaloid, sinomenine (SIN), was investigated in the acute experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of multiple sclerosis (MS). SIN is a bioactive alkaloid derived from the Chinese medicinal plant, Sinomenium acutum REHDER & E. H. WILSON (Family Menispermaceae). Chinese doctors have utilized this plant to treat rheumatic and arthritic diseases for over one thousand years. Experiments in which EAE-induced Lewis rats exhibit an acute monophasic episode of disease demonstrated that SIN is effective in preventing clinical signs of disease. The therapeutic effect on disease activity was observed at preonset administration times and at various doses tested. Consistent with disease activity in vivo, SIN-treated animals have reduced cellular infiltration within the spinal cord along with decreased TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma expression levels. SIN can significantly inhibit proliferation response of splenocytes induced by MBP(68-82). TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma, secreted by splenocytes induced by MBP(68-82) are inhibited by SIN by dose-dependence manner. The mRNA levels of CC chemokines, RANTES, MIP-1alpha and MCP-1, are inhibited in SIN-treated EAE rats. The data in this proof of concept study support the premise that SIN may be a promising new therapeutic intervention in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanying Zeng
- Department of Immunology, Nanjing Medical University, 140 Hanzhong Road, Nanjing 210029, China
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Korniychuk E, Dempster JM, O'Connor E, Alexander JS, Kelley RE, Kenner M, Menon U, Misra V, Hoque R, Gonzalez-Toledo E, Schwendimann RN, Smith S, Minagar A. Evolving Therapies For Multiple Sclerosis. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2007; 79:571-88. [PMID: 17531859 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(07)79025-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The introduction of immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive agents for treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) has forever altered the natural course of this incurable and disabling neurodegenerative disorder. Despite early diagnosis of relapsing-remitting MS and early initiation of therapy, patients still experience breakthrough relapses and progression of their underlying MS pathology. The imperfect effectiveness, side effects, and toxicity of these agents, emphasize the necessity for development of more effective medications with less adverse events. This chapter presents readers with the most current information on the nature, mechanism(s) of action, and side effects of the most promising experimental agents currently under clinical trials. Some of the agents now at different stages of clinical trial have emerged as both safe and promising. The understanding of MS etiology will lead to the development of increasingly specific, safer, and effective treatments for MS by neuroscientists and neurologists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Korniychuk
- Department of Neurology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Louisiana 71103, USA
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