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Breaching Brain Barriers: B Cell Migration in Multiple Sclerosis. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12060800. [PMID: 35740925 PMCID: PMC9221446 DOI: 10.3390/biom12060800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) known for the manifestation of demyelinated lesions throughout the CNS, leading to neurodegeneration. To date, not all pathological mechanisms that drive disease progression are known, but the clinical benefits of anti-CD20 therapies have put B cells in the spotlight of MS research. Besides their pathological effects in the periphery in MS, B cells gain access to the CNS where they can contribute to disease pathogenesis. Specifically, B cells accumulate in perivascular infiltrates in the brain parenchyma and the subarachnoid spaces of the meninges, but are virtually absent from the choroid plexus. Hence, the possible migration of B cells over the blood-brain-, blood-meningeal-, and blood-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) barriers appears to be a crucial step to understanding B cell-mediated pathology. To gain more insight into the molecular mechanisms that regulate B cell trafficking into the brain, we here provide a comprehensive overview of the different CNS barriers in health and in MS and how they translate into different routes for B cell migration. In addition, we review the mechanisms of action of diverse therapies that deplete peripheral B cells and/or block B cell migration into the CNS. Importantly, this review shows that studying the different routes of how B cells enter the inflamed CNS should be the next step to understanding this disease.
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Ortiz GG, Pacheco-Moisés FP, Macías-Islas MÁ, Flores-Alvarado LJ, Mireles-Ramírez MA, González-Renovato ED, Hernández-Navarro VE, Sánchez-López AL, Alatorre-Jiménez MA. Role of the blood-brain barrier in multiple sclerosis. Arch Med Res 2014; 45:687-97. [PMID: 25431839 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2014.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system associated with demyelination and axonal loss eventually leading to neurodegeneration. MS exhibits many of the hallmarks of an inflammatory autoimmune disorder including breakdown of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB is a complex organization of cerebral endothelial cells, pericytes and their basal lamina, which are surrounded and supported by astrocytes and perivascular macrophages. In pathological conditions, lymphocytes activated in the periphery infiltrate the central nervous system to trigger a local immune response that ultimately damages myelin and axons. Cytotoxic factors including pro-inflammatory cytokines, proteases, and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species accumulate and may contribute to myelin destruction. Dysregulation of the BBB and transendothelial migration of activated leukocytes are among the earliest cerebrovascular abnormalities seen in MS brains and parallel the release of inflammatory cytokines. In this review we establish the importance of the role of the BBB in MS. Improvements in our understanding of molecular mechanism of BBB functioning in physiological and pathological conditions could lead to improvement in the quality of life of MS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genaro Gabriel Ortiz
- Laboratorio Desarrollo-Envejecimiento, Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Occidente (CIBO), Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Guadalajara, Jalisco, México.
| | - Fermín Paul Pacheco-Moisés
- Departamento de Química, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e Ingenierías, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - Miguel Ángel Macías-Islas
- Departamento de Neurología, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad (UMAE), Hospital de Especialidades (HE), Centro Médico de Nacional de Occidente (CMNO), IMSS, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - Luis Javier Flores-Alvarado
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud (CUCS), Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - Mario A Mireles-Ramírez
- Departamento de Neurología, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad (UMAE), Hospital de Especialidades (HE), Centro Médico de Nacional de Occidente (CMNO), IMSS, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - Erika Daniela González-Renovato
- Laboratorio Desarrollo-Envejecimiento, Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Occidente (CIBO), Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - Vanessa Elizabeth Hernández-Navarro
- Laboratorio Desarrollo-Envejecimiento, Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Occidente (CIBO), Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - Angélica Lizeth Sánchez-López
- Laboratorio Desarrollo-Envejecimiento, Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Occidente (CIBO), Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - Moisés Alejandro Alatorre-Jiménez
- Laboratorio Desarrollo-Envejecimiento, Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, División de Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica de Occidente (CIBO), Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
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Bellizzi A, Anzivino E, Rodio DM, Cioccolo S, Scrivo R, Morreale M, Pontecorvo S, Ferrari F, Di Nardo G, Nencioni L, Carluccio S, Valesini G, Francia A, Cucchiara S, Palamara AT, Pietropaolo V. Human Polyomavirus JC monitoring and noncoding control region analysis in dynamic cohorts of individuals affected by immune-mediated diseases under treatment with biologics: an observational study. Virol J 2013; 10:298. [PMID: 24079660 PMCID: PMC3849738 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) onset, caused by Polyomavirus JC (JCPyV) in patients affected by immune-mediated diseases during biological treatment, raised concerns about the safety profile of these agents. Therefore, the aims of this study were the JCPyV reactivation monitoring and the noncoding control region (NCCR) and viral protein 1 (VP1) analysis in patients affected by different immune-mediated diseases and treated with biologics. METHODS We performed JCPyV-specific quantitative PCR of biological samples collected at moment of recruitment (t0) and every 4 months (t1, t2, t3, t4). Subsequently, rearrangements' analysis of NCCR and VP1 was carried out. Data were analyzed using χ2 test. RESULTS Results showed that at t0 patients with chronic inflammatory rheumatic diseases presented a JCPyV load in the urine significantly higher (p≤0.05) than in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and Crohn's disease (CD). It can also be observed a significant association between JC viruria and JCPyV antibodies after 1 year of natalizumab (p=0.04) in MS patients. Finally, NCCR analysis showed the presence of an archetype-like sequence in all urine samples, whereas a rearranged NCCR Type IR was found in colon-rectal biopsies collected from 2 CD patients after 16 months of infliximab. Furthermore, sequences isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of 2 MS patients with JCPyV antibody at t0 and t3, showed a NCCR Type IIR with a duplication of a 98 bp unit and a 66 bp insert, resulting in a boxB deletion and 37 T to G transversion into the Spi-B binding site. In all patients, a prevalence of genotypes 1A and 1B, the predominant JCPyV genotypes in Europe, was observed. CONCLUSIONS It has been important to understand whether the specific inflammatory scenario in different immune-mediated diseases could affect JCPyV reactivation from latency, in particular from kidneys. Moreover, for a more accurate PML risk stratification, testing JC viruria seems to be useful to identify patients who harbor JCPyV but with an undetectable JCPyV-specific humoral immune response. In these patients, it may also be important to study the JCPyV NCCR rearrangement: in particular, Spi-B expression in PBMCs could play a crucial role in JCPyV replication and NCCR rearrangement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Bellizzi
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Anzivino
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Donatella Maria Rodio
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Cioccolo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Rossana Scrivo
- Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Disciplines, Rheumatology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Manuela Morreale
- Department of Medico-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Section of Neurology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Simona Pontecorvo
- Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Federica Ferrari
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Gastroenterology and Liver Unit, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Di Nardo
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Gastroenterology and Liver Unit, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Lucia Nencioni
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Institute Pasteur, Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Carluccio
- Department of Biomedical, Surgery and Dental Sciences, University of Milan, via Pascal 36, 20123 Milan, Italy
| | - Guido Valesini
- Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Disciplines, Rheumatology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Ada Francia
- Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Salvatore Cucchiara
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Gastroenterology and Liver Unit, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Teresa Palamara
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Institute Pasteur, Cenci-Bolognetti Foundation, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- San Raffaele Pisana Scientific Institute for Research, Hospitalization and Health Care, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Pietropaolo
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Sbarro Institute for Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Center for Biotechnology, College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Mancuso R, Saresella M, Hernis A, Marventano I, Ricci C, Agostini S, Rovaris M, Caputo D, Clerici M. JC virus detection and JC virus-specific immunity in natalizumab-treated multiple sclerosis patients. J Transl Med 2012; 10:248. [PMID: 23232085 PMCID: PMC3558446 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-10-248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The use of natalizumab in multiple sclerosis (MS) may favour JC virus reactivation; this phenomenon is usually asymptomatic but can, albeit rarely, evolve into frank progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy (PML). Methods JCV-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes were evaluated by flow cytometry over a 24-month period in 24 natalizumab-treated MS patients in whom JCV DNA was or was not detected in blood using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction; all these cases were asymptomatic. Results Perforin- and grazymes-containing VP-1-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes were reduced whereas CD107a-expressing cells were increased in JCV positive patients, suggesting an active degranulation of these cells; naïve CD8+ T lymphocytes were also decreased whereas memory cells were increased in patients in whom JCV reactivation was observed. Conclusion The presence of a CD8+ T lymphocyte-mediated effector immune response offers a greater insight into reactivation of JCV and its clinical sequelae, and may help the monitoring of patients on natalizumab therapy.
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Molecular biology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, the JC virus-induced demyelinating disease of the human brain. Clin Microbiol Rev 2012; 25:471-506. [PMID: 22763635 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.05031-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 289] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a debilitating and frequently fatal central nervous system (CNS) demyelinating disease caused by JC virus (JCV), for which there is currently no effective treatment. Lytic infection of oligodendrocytes in the brain leads to their eventual destruction and progressive demyelination, resulting in multiple foci of lesions in the white matter of the brain. Before the mid-1980s, PML was a relatively rare disease, reported to occur primarily in those with underlying neoplastic conditions affecting immune function and, more rarely, in allograft recipients receiving immunosuppressive drugs. However, with the onset of the AIDS pandemic, the incidence of PML has increased dramatically. Approximately 3 to 5% of HIV-infected individuals will develop PML, which is classified as an AIDS-defining illness. In addition, the recent advent of humanized monoclonal antibody therapy for the treatment of autoimmune inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and Crohn's disease has also led to an increased risk of PML as a side effect of immunotherapy. Thus, the study of JCV and the elucidation of the underlying causes of PML are important and active areas of research that may lead to new insights into immune function and host antiviral defense, as well as to potential new therapies.
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Post MJD, Thurnher MM, Clifford DB, Nath A, Gonzalez RG, Gupta RK, Post KK. CNS-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in the setting of HIV infection, part 1: overview and discussion of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome and cryptococcal-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2012; 34:1297-307. [PMID: 22790246 DOI: 10.3174/ajnr.a3183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY While uncommon, CNS-IRIS developing after the initiation of HAART in the setting of HIV-related severe immunosuppression is characterized by an intense inflammatory reaction to dead or latent organisms or to self-antigens due to a heightened but dysregulated immune response. While this reaction can range from mild to fulminating, encompassing a very wide clinical spectrum, it is important to recognize because changes in medical management may be necessary to prevent neurologic decline and even death. Once contained, however, this inflammatory response can be associated with improved patient outcome as immune function is restored. Among the infectious organisms that are most commonly associated with CNS-IRIS are the JC virus and Cryptococcus organisms, which will be the subject of this review. CD8 cell infiltration in the leptomeninges, perivascular spaces, blood vessels, and even parenchyma seems to be the pathologic hallmark of CNS-IRIS. While recognition of CNS-IRIS may be difficult, the onset of new or progressive clinical symptoms, despite medical therapy and despite improved laboratory data, and the appearance on neuroimaging studies of contrast enhancement, interstitial edema, mass effect, and restricted diffusion in infections not typically characterized by these findings in the untreated HIV-infected patient should raise the strong suspicion for CNS-IRIS. While CNS-IRIS is a diagnosis of exclusion, the neuroradiologist can play a critical role in alerting the clinician to the possibility of this syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J D Post
- Section of Neuroradiology, Department of Radiology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Jackson Memorial Medical Center, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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Planas R, Jelčić I, Schippling S, Martin R, Sospedra M. Natalizumab treatment perturbs memory- and marginal zone-like B-cell homing in secondary lymphoid organs in multiple sclerosis. Eur J Immunol 2011; 42:790-8. [PMID: 22144343 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201142108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Revised: 10/21/2011] [Accepted: 11/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Natalizumab, an antibody against the α4 subunit of α4 integrins, has been approved for multiple sclerosis (MS) therapy based on its high efficacy and safety profile. However, natalizumab has been associated with the development of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a disorder caused by JC virus (JCV) infection. In order to improve our understanding of the mechanism of action of natalizumab and to identify possible risk factors for PML development, we have characterized in detail the cell blood composition in MS patients treated with natalizumab for more than 30 months. Natalizumab induced the release of lymphoid- but not myeloid precursor cells, which resulted in a chronic increase ofT-, NK- and particularly B cells. While the percentage of recent thymic emigrants (RTEs), naϊve, effector or memory T cells remained unchanged during treatment, a higher percentage of memory- and marginal zone (MZ)-like, but not of naϊve B cells, was observed, which most likely is due to a decreased retention of these cells within the splenic MZ. The ability of natalizumab to influence B-cell migration and homeostasis through the splenic MZ, where JCV has been detected, adds to the list of natalizumab effects and may contribute to PML development by disseminating JCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Planas
- Institute for Neuroimmunology and Clinical MS Research, Center for Molecular Neurobiology Hamburg, University Medical Center-Eppendorf, Hamburg, UKE, Germany
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Ulzheimer JC, Meuth SG, Bittner S, Kleinschnitz C, Kieseier BC, Wiendl H. Therapeutic approaches to multiple sclerosis: an update on failed, interrupted, or inconclusive trials of immunomodulatory treatment strategies. BioDrugs 2010; 24:249-74. [PMID: 20623991 DOI: 10.2165/11537160-000000000-00000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) continues to be a therapeutic challenge, and much effort is being made to develop new and more effective immune therapies. Particularly in the past decade, neuroimmunologic research has delivered new and highly effective therapeutic options, as seen in the growing number of immunotherapeutic agents and biologics in development. However, numerous promising clinical trials have failed to show efficacy or have had to be halted prematurely because of unexpected adverse events. Some others have shown results that are of unknown significance with regard to a reliable assessment of true efficacy versus safety. For example, studies of the highly innovative monoclonal antibodies that selectively target immunologic effector molecules have not only revealed the impressive efficacy of such treatments, they have also raised serious concerns about the safety profiles of these antibodies. These results add a new dimension to the estimation of risk-benefit ratios regarding acute or long-term adverse effects. Therapeutic approaches that have previously failed in MS have indicated that there are discrepancies between theoretical expectations and practical outcomes of different compounds. Learning from these defeats helps to optimize future study designs and to reduce the risks to patients. This review summarizes trials on MS treatments since 2001 that failed or were interrupted, attempts to analyze the underlying reasons for failure, and discusses the implications for our current view of MS pathogenesis, clinical practice, and design of future studies. In order to maintain clarity, this review focuses on anti-inflammatory therapies and does not include studies on already approved and effective disease-modifying therapies, albeit used in distinct administration routes or under different paradigms. Neuroprotective and alternative treatment strategies are presented elsewhere.
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Overlapping and distinct mechanisms of action of multiple sclerosis therapies. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2010; 112:583-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2010.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Revised: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 05/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Chapagain ML, Nerurkar VR. Human polyomavirus JC (JCV) infection of human B lymphocytes: a possible mechanism for JCV transmigration across the blood-brain barrier. J Infect Dis 2010; 202:184-91. [PMID: 20550458 DOI: 10.1086/653823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been suggested that JC virus (JCV) might travel to the central nervous system in infected B cells. Moreover, recent data suggest the presence of JCV in bone marrow plasma cells. However, the evidence for infection and replication of JCV in B cells is unclear. To address this question, we infected Epstein-Barr virus-transformed B cells with JCV and found that the viral genome decreased >1000-fold from days 0 to 20 after infection, which concurred with the absence of viral early and late messenger RNA transcripts and proteins. However, immunofluorescent images of B cells infected with fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated JCV demonstrated that JCV enters the B cells, and DNase protection assay confirmed the presence of intact JCV virions inside the B cells. Moreover, JCV-infected B cells were able to transmit infection to naive glial cells. These data confirm that JCV nonproductively infects B cells and possibly uses them as a vehicle for transmigration across the blood-brain barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moti L Chapagain
- Retrovirology Research Laboratory, Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology, and Pharmacology, John A Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813, USA
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Alvarez JI, Cayrol R, Prat A. Disruption of central nervous system barriers in multiple sclerosis. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2010; 1812:252-64. [PMID: 20619340 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2010.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2010] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 06/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The delicate microenvironment of the central nervous system (CNS) is protected by the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCB). These barriers function in distinct CNS compartments and their anatomical basis lay on the junctional proteins present in endothelial cells for the BBB and in the choroidal epithelium for the BCB. During neuroinflammatory conditions like multiple sclerosis (MS) and its murine model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), activation or damage of the various cellular components of these barriers facilitate leukocyte infiltration leading to oligodendrocyte death, axonal damage, demyelination and lesion development. This manuscript will review in detail the features of these barriers under physiological and pathological conditions, particularly when focal immune activation promotes the loss of the BBB and BCB phenotype, the upregulation of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) and the recruitment of immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Ivan Alvarez
- Neuroimmunology Research Laboratory, Center of Excellence in Neuromics, CHUM-Notre-Dame Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
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Lonergan RM, Carr MJ, De Gascun CF, Costelloe LF, Waters A, Coughlan S, Duggan M, Doyle K, Jordan S, Hutchinson MW, Hall WW, Tubridy NJ. Reactivation of BK polyomavirus in patients with multiple sclerosis receiving natalizumab therapy. J Neurovirol 2010; 15:351-9. [PMID: 19670070 DOI: 10.3109/13550280903131923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Natalizumab therapy in multiple sclerosis has been associated with JC polyomavirus-induced progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy. We hypothesized that natalizumab may also lead to reactivation of BK, a related human polyomavirus capable of causing morbidity in immunosuppressed groups. Patients with relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis treated with natalizumab were prospectively monitored for reactivation of BK virus in blood and urine samples, and for evidence of associated renal dysfunction. In this cohort, JC and BK DNA in blood and urine; cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA in blood and urine; CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocyte counts and ratios in peripheral blood; and renal function were monitored at regular intervals. BK subtyping and noncoding control region sequencing was performed on samples demonstrating reactivation. Prior to commencement of natalizumab therapy, 3 of 36 patients with multiple sclerosis (8.3%) had BK viruria and BK reactivation occurred in 12 of 54 patients (22.2%). BK viruria was transient in 7, continuous in 2 patients, and persistent viruria was associated with transient viremia. Concomitant JC and CMV viral loads were undetectable. CD4:CD8 ratios fluctuated, but absolute CD4 counts did not fall below normal limits. In four of seven patients with BK virus reactivation, transient reductions in CD4 counts were observed at onset of BK viruria: these resolved in three of four patients on resuppression of BK replication. No renal dysfunction was observed in the cohort. BK virus reactivation can occur during natalizumab therapy; however, the significance in the absence of renal dysfunction is unclear. We propose regular monitoring for BK reactivation or at least for evidence of renal dysfunction in patients receiving natalizumab.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roisin M Lonergan
- Department of Neurology, St Vincent's University Hospital, Elm Park, Dublin, Ireland.
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Neuroprotection, regeneration and immunomodulation: broadening the therapeutic repertoire in multiple sclerosis. Trends Neurosci 2010; 33:140-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2009.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2009] [Revised: 11/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/03/2009] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Abstract
The development of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) presents an emerging, highly specific therapeutic strategy for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). mAbs target selective molecules and have shown early promise, along with notable risks, in the treatment of MS and other immune-mediated diseases. The mechanism of action of the 4 mAbs under active investigation for MS (natalizumab, rituximab, alemtuzumab, and daclizumab) are reviewed, with a discussion of how mAb interaction with each target antigen may produce direct and indirect effects (proven and hypothesized) on immune cell activity, CNS-related inflammatory processes, and clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bibiana Bielekova
- Neuroimmunological Diseases Unit, National Institute NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Tan CS, Dezube BJ, Bhargava P, Autissier P, Wüthrich C, Miller J, Koralnik IJ. Detection of JC virus DNA and proteins in the bone marrow of HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients: implications for viral latency and neurotropic transformation. J Infect Dis 2009; 199:881-8. [PMID: 19434914 DOI: 10.1086/597117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We sought to determine the prevalence of JC virus (JCV) in bone marrow samples from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and HIV-negative patients and to determine whether bone marrow is a site of latency and neurotropic transformation of JCV, the agent of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). METHODS We collected bone marrow aspirates, archival bone marrow samples, and blood and urine samples from 75 HIV-negative and 47 HIV-positive patients without PML as well as bone marrow and urine or kidney samples from 8 HIV-negative and 15 HIV-positive patients with PML. Samples were tested for JCV DNA by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and for JCV protein expression by immunohistochemical analysis. JCV regulatory regions (RRs) were characterized by sequencing. RESULTS JCV DNA was detected in bone marrow samples from 10 (13%) of 75 and 22 (47%) of 47 of the HIV-negative and HIV-positive patients without PML, respectively, compared with 3 (38%) of 8 and 4 (27%) of 15 of the HIV-negative and HIV-positive patients with PML. JCV DNA (range, 2-1081 copies/microg of cellular DNA) was detected in multiple leukocyte subpopulations of blood and bone marrow samples. JCV large T antigen, but not VP1 capsid protein, was expressed in bone marrow plasma cells. Bone marrow JCV RR sequences were similar to those usually found in the brains of patients with PML. CONCLUSIONS Bone marrow is an important reservoir and a possible site of neurotropic transformation for JCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen S Tan
- Division of Viral Pathogenesis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
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Beta1 integrins differentially control extravasation of inflammatory cell subsets into the CNS during autoimmunity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:1920-5. [PMID: 19179279 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0808909106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibiting the alpha(4) subunit of the integrin heterodimers alpha(4)beta(1) and alpha(4)beta(7) with the monoclonal antibody natalizumab is an effective treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS). However, the pharmacological action of natalizumab is not understood conclusively. Previous studies suggested that natalizumab inhibits activation, proliferation, or extravasation of inflammatory cells. To specify which mechanisms, cell types, and alpha(4) heterodimers are affected by the antibody treatment, we studied MS-like experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice lacking the beta(1)-integrin gene either in all hematopoietic cells or selectively in T lymphocytes. Our results show that T cells critically rely on beta(1) integrins to accumulate in the central nervous system (CNS) during EAE, whereas CNS infiltration of beta(1)-deficient myeloid cells remains unaffected, suggesting that T cells are the main target of anti-alpha(4)-antibody blockade. We demonstrate that beta(1)-integrin expression on encephalitogenic T cells is critical for EAE development, and we therefore exclude alpha(4)beta(7) as a target integrin of the antibody treatment. T cells lacking beta(1) integrin are unable to firmly adhere to CNS endothelium in vivo, whereas their priming and expansion remain unaffected. Collectively, these results suggest that the primary action of natalizumab is interference with T cell extravasation via inhibition of alpha(4)beta(1) integrins.
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Update on PML: lessons from the HIV uninfected and new insights in pathogenesis and treatment. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2008; 5:112-9. [PMID: 18627659 DOI: 10.1007/s11904-008-0018-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Significant advances in our understanding of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) and its causative agent, JC virus, have been made since PML was first described 50 years ago. However, immune reconstitution remains the only proven, effective therapy in this devastating central nervous system disorder. Early diagnosis and adjustments of immune suppressants and modulator agents are critical in managing PML in HIV-negative patients. This review summarizes recent advances in our understanding of PML in HIV-uninfected patients in oncology, rheumatology, organ transplantation, and idiopathic immune deficiency and in association with novel therapeutics. Brain MRI data from our case series of brain biopsy-proven HIV-negative PML patients indicate the presence of an inflammatory/immune reaction in brain tissues, which was confirmed by immunocytologic analysis. Future studies to better understand PML pathogenesis in HIV-negative individuals may help uncover new potential therapeutic targets and improve PML outcomes.
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Abstract
For more than a decade the only therapies that were available for multiple sclerosis (MS) were two immunomodulatory drugs-interferon beta and glatiramer acetate-and the immunosuppressant mitoxantrone. Natalizumab, a monoclonal antibody against alpha4 integrin, has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency on the basis of its higher efficacy than the available treatments and its good safety profile. Monoclonal antibodies that are already licensed to treat other diseases, such as cancer and autoimmune diseases, are being tested for the treatment of MS. Additionally, novel targets are currently being investigated for MS. The therapeutic use of monoclonal antibodies was initially viewed with great scepticism owing to the high rates of sensitisation against mouse proteins, their pharmacokinetic properties, and the difficulties in their production. However, most of these problems have been overcome, and monoclonal antibodies are now among the most promising therapies for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Lutterotti
- Institute for Neuroimmunology and Clinical MS Research, Center for Molecular Neurobiology Hamburg, University Medical Center Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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Centonze D, Furlan R, Gasperini C, Salvetti M, Battistini L. Early relapses after the first dose of natalizumab in active multiple sclerosis patients. Mult Scler 2008; 14:1137-8. [DOI: 10.1177/1352458508092810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Background Natalizumab is prescribed in Italy in patients who experienced at least two clinical relapses during a 12-month therapy with other approved immunomodulatory agents. Results In 7 of 35 patients selected on the basis of these recommendations, we have observed clinical relapses occurring within 24 h after the first dose of natalizumab. Conclusion The mechanism by which a first injection of natalizumab may precipitate a clinical relapse in patients with MS is unknown. We speculate that natalizumab can promote the release of inflammatory mediators from lymphocytes present in the central nervous system at the time of the first infusion, thus favoring the clinical manifestation of a pre-existing active lesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Centonze
- Department of Neuroscience, Neurologic Clinics, Tor Vergata University, Rome, Italy; European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - R Furlan
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Institute of Experimental Neurology (INSpe), San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - C Gasperini
- Department of Neurosciences, San Camillo Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - M Salvetti
- Neurologic Clinics, Center for Experimental Neurological Therapy, La Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - L Battistini
- European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
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Rituximab-induced B cell depletion in autoimmune diseases: Potential effects on T cells. Clin Immunol 2008; 127:280-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2008.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2007] [Revised: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Houff S, Berger JR. Reply to "'Thinking without thinking' about natalizumab and PML". J Neurol Sci 2007; 264:198-9; author reply 199. [PMID: 17936798 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2007.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2007] [Accepted: 09/14/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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