1
|
Poniatowski ŁA, Woźnica M, Wojdasiewicz P, Mela-Kalicka A, Romanowska-Próchnicka K, Purrahman D, Żurek G, Krawczyk M, Nameh Goshay Fard N, Furtak-Niczyporuk M, Jaroszyński J, Mahmoudian-Sani MR, Joniec-Maciejak I. The Role of Progranulin (PGRN) in the Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma Multiforme. Cells 2024; 13:124. [PMID: 38247816 PMCID: PMC10814625 DOI: 10.3390/cells13020124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) represents the most common and aggressive malignant form of brain tumour in adults and is characterized by an extremely poor prognosis with dismal survival rates. Currently, expanding concepts concerning the pathophysiology of GBM are inextricably linked with neuroinflammatory phenomena. On account of this fact, the identification of novel pathomechanisms targeting neuroinflammation seems to be crucial in terms of yielding successful individual therapeutic strategies. In recent years, the pleiotropic growth factor progranulin (PGRN) has attracted significant attention in the neuroscience and oncological community regarding its neuroimmunomodulatory and oncogenic functions. This review of the literature summarizes and updates contemporary knowledge about PGRN, its associated receptors and signalling pathway involvement in GBM pathogenesis, indicating possible cellular and molecular mechanisms with potential diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic targets in order to yield successful individual therapeutic strategies. After a review of the literature, we found that there are possible PGRN-targeted therapeutic approaches for implementation in GBM treatment algorithms both in preclinical and future clinical studies. Furthermore, PGRN-targeted therapies exerted their highest efficacy in combination with other established chemotherapeutic agents, such as temozolomide. The results of the analysis suggested that the possible implementation of routine determinations of PGRN and its associated receptors in tumour tissue and biofluids could serve as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker of GBM. Furthermore, promising preclinical applications of PGRN-related findings should be investigated in clinical studies in order to create new diagnostic and therapeutic algorithms for GBM treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz A. Poniatowski
- Department of Neurosurgery, Dietrich-Bonhoeffer-Klinikum, Salvador-Allende-Straße 30, 17036 Neubrandenburg, Germany
| | - Michał Woźnica
- Department of Spine Surgery, 7th Navy Hospital, Polanki 117, 80-305 Gdańsk, Poland;
| | - Piotr Wojdasiewicz
- Department of Biophysics, Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Warsaw, Chałubińskiego 5, 02-004 Warsaw, Poland (K.R.-P.)
| | - Aneta Mela-Kalicka
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Centre for Preclinical Research and Technology (CePT), Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1B, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Romanowska-Próchnicka
- Department of Biophysics, Physiology and Pathophysiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Warsaw, Chałubińskiego 5, 02-004 Warsaw, Poland (K.R.-P.)
- Department of Systemic Connective Tissue Diseases, Eleonora Reicher National Institute of Geriatrics, Rheumatology and Rehabilitation, Spartańska 1, 02-637 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Daryush Purrahman
- Thalassemia and Hemoglobinopathy Research Center, Health Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; (D.P.)
| | - Grzegorz Żurek
- Department of Biostructure, Wrocław University of Health and Sport Sciences, I. J. Paderewskiego 35, 51-612 Wrocław, Poland;
| | - Maciej Krawczyk
- 2nd Department of Neurology, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Sobieskiego 9, 02-957 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Najmeh Nameh Goshay Fard
- Thalassemia and Hemoglobinopathy Research Center, Health Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; (D.P.)
| | - Marzena Furtak-Niczyporuk
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 1, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Janusz Jaroszyński
- Department of Administrative Proceedings, Faculty of Law and Administration, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University of Lublin, Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej 5, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
| | - Mohammad-Reza Mahmoudian-Sani
- Thalassemia and Hemoglobinopathy Research Center, Health Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; (D.P.)
| | - Ilona Joniec-Maciejak
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Centre for Preclinical Research and Technology (CePT), Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1B, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Fehri E, Ennaifer E, Bel Haj Rhouma R, Ardhaoui M, Boubaker S. TLR9 and Glioma: Friends or Foes? Cells 2022; 12:cells12010152. [PMID: 36611945 PMCID: PMC9818384 DOI: 10.3390/cells12010152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is an intracellular innate immunity receptor that plays a vital role in chronic inflammation and in recognizing pathogenic and self-DNA in immune complexes. This activation of intracellular signaling leads to the transcription of either immune-related or malignancy genes through specific transcription factors. Thus, it has been hypothesized that TLR9 may cause glioma. This article reviews the roles of TLR9 in the pathogenesis of glioma and its related signaling molecules in either defending or promoting glioma. TLR9 mediates the invasion-induced hypoxia of brain cancer cells by the activation of matrix metalloproteinases (2, 9, and 13) in brain tissues. In contrast, the combination of the TLR9 agonist CpG ODN to radiotherapy boosts the role of T cells in antitumor effects. The TLR9 agonist CpG ODN 107 also enhances the radiosensitivity of human glioma U87 cells by blocking tumor angiogenesis. CpG enhances apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, it can enhance the antigen-presenting capacity of microglia, switch immune response toward CD8 T cells, and reduce the number of CD4CD25 Treg cells. CpG ODN shows promise as a potent immunotherapeutic drug against cancer, but specific cautions should be taken when activating TLR9, especially in the case of glioblastoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emna Fehri
- HPV Unit Research, Laboratory of Molecular Epidemiology and Experimental Pathology Applied to Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
- Department of Human and Experimental Pathology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
- Correspondence:
| | - Emna Ennaifer
- HPV Unit Research, Laboratory of Molecular Epidemiology and Experimental Pathology Applied to Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
- Department of Human and Experimental Pathology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Rahima Bel Haj Rhouma
- HPV Unit Research, Laboratory of Molecular Epidemiology and Experimental Pathology Applied to Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Monia Ardhaoui
- HPV Unit Research, Laboratory of Molecular Epidemiology and Experimental Pathology Applied to Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
- Department of Human and Experimental Pathology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Samir Boubaker
- Department of Human and Experimental Pathology, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wei J, Song R, Sabbagh A, Marisetty A, Shukla N, Fang D, Najem H, Ott M, Long J, Zhai L, Lesniak MS, James CD, Platanias L, Curran M, Heimberger AB. Cell-directed aptamer therapeutic targeting for cancers including those within the central nervous system. Oncoimmunology 2022; 11:2062827. [PMID: 35433114 PMCID: PMC9009928 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2022.2062827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteopontin (OPN) is produced by tumor cells as well as by myeloid cells and is enriched in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of many cancers. Given the roles of OPN in tumor progression and immune suppression, we hypothesized that targeting OPN with aptamers that have high affinity and specificity could be a promising therapeutic strategy. Bi-specific aptamers targeting ligands for cellular internalization were conjugated to siRNAs to suppress OPN were created, and therapeutic leads were selected based on target engagement and in vivo activity. Aptamers as carriers for siRNA approaches were created including a cancer targeting nucleolin aptamer Ncl-OPN siRNA and a myeloid targeting CpG oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN)-OPN siRNA conjugate. These aptamers were selected as therapeutic leads based on 70–90% OPN inhibition in cancer (GL261, 344SQ, 4T1B2b) and myeloid (DC2.4) cells relative to scramble controls. In established immune competent 344SQ lung cancer and 4T1B2b breast cancer models, these aptamers, including in combination, demonstrate therapeutic activity by inhibiting tumor growth. The Ncl-OPN siRNA aptamer demonstrated efficacy in an immune competent orthotopic glioma model administered systemically secondary to the ability of the aptamer to access the glioma TME. Therapeutic activity was demonstrated using both aptamers in a breast cancer brain metastasis model. Targeted inhibition of OPN in tumor cells and myeloid cells using bifunctional aptamers that are internalized by specific cell types and suppress OPN expression once internalized may have clinical potential in cancer treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Wei
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Renduo Song
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Aria Sabbagh
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Anantha Marisetty
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Neal Shukla
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Dexing Fang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Hinda Najem
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Malnati Brain Tumor Institute of the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Martina Ott
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - James Long
- Department of Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Lijie Zhai
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Malnati Brain Tumor Institute of the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Maciej S. Lesniak
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Malnati Brain Tumor Institute of the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Charles David James
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Malnati Brain Tumor Institute of the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Leonidas Platanias
- Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center and Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Department of Medicine, Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Michael Curran
- Department of Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Amy B. Heimberger
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
- Malnati Brain Tumor Institute of the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Xun Y, Yang H, Kaminska B, You H. Toll-like receptors and toll-like receptor-targeted immunotherapy against glioma. J Hematol Oncol 2021; 14:176. [PMID: 34715891 PMCID: PMC8555307 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-021-01191-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioma represents a fast proliferating and highly invasive brain tumor which is resistant to current therapies and invariably recurs. Despite some advancements in anti-glioma therapies, patients’ prognosis remains poor. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) act as the first line of defense in the immune system being the detectors of those associated with bacteria, viruses, and danger signals. In the glioma microenvironment, TLRs are expressed on both immune and tumor cells, playing dual roles eliciting antitumoral (innate and adaptive immunity) and protumoral (cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and glioma stem cell maintenance) responses. Up to date, several TLR-targeting therapies have been developed aiming at glioma bulk and stem cells, infiltrating immune cells, the immune checkpoint axis, among others. While some TLR agonists exhibited survival benefit in clinical trials, it attracts more attention when they are involved in combinatorial treatment with radiation, chemotherapy, immune vaccination, and immune checkpoint inhibition in glioma treatment. TLR agonists can be used as immune modulators to enhance the efficacy of other treatment, to avoid dose accumulation, and what brings more interests is that they can potentiate immune checkpoint delayed resistance to PD-1/PD-L1 blockade by upregulating PD-1/PD-L1 overexpression, thus unleash powerful antitumor responses when combined with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Herein, we focus on recent developments and clinical trials exploring TLR-based treatment to provide a picture of the relationship between TLR and glioma and their implications for immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Xun
- Department of Basic Medicine and Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Foshan University, Foshan, 528000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Hua Yang
- Department of Basic Medicine and Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Foshan University, Foshan, 528000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Bozena Kaminska
- Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, No.78 Heng-Zhi-Gang Road, Yue Xiu District, Guangzhou, 510095, China.,Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Hua You
- Affiliated Cancer Hospital and Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, No.78 Heng-Zhi-Gang Road, Yue Xiu District, Guangzhou, 510095, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Tiwari RK, Singh S, Gupta CL, Pandey P, Singh VK, Sayyed U, Shekh R, Bajpai P. Repolarization of glioblastoma macrophage cells using non-agonistic Dectin-1 ligand encapsulating TLR-9 agonist: plausible role in regenerative medicine against brain tumor. Int J Neurosci 2020; 131:591-598. [PMID: 32250189 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2020.1750393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most severe forms of brain cancer, eventually becoming the leading cause of brain cancer-related death worldwide. Owing to the bleak surgical interventions and resistance to the different treatment regime, GBM is a parlous disease demanding newer therapeutical perspective for its treatment. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are well-known members of pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) and have been extensively explored for their therapeutic and prophylactic potential in an array of disease including cancer. Recent trends in drug delivery research has shown shift towards delivering short DNA sequences (CpG DNA) to endosomal TLR9 within immune cells (macrophages, dendritic cells, etc.) for the activation of desired inflammatory response using non-agonistic β-glucan particles; a well-known ligand for Dectin-1 receptors. Our study is therefore focused to explore the role of nano-encapsulated CpG ODN as critical players in polarizing M2 scavenging to much desired pro-inflammatory type. MATERIALS AND METHODS The nanoparticles entrapping CpG ODN 1826 were prepared by using a fungal polymer Schizophyllan (SPG). The constructed nanoparticles were characterized and assessed for their efficacy on rat glioblastoma cells (C6). RESULTS The constructed Schizophyllan (SPG) nanoparticles entrapping CpG ODN 1826 (95.3%) were of 25.49 nm in diameter and thus capable of crossing blood-brain barrier. The rat glioblastoma (C6) cells evaluated for intracellular oxidative burst and cytokine levels pre- and post-incubation with nanoparticles exhibited marked elevation in the expression of intracellular ROS and IFN-γ as well as IL-1β post treatment. CONCLUSION The findings indicate towards potentiality of repolarizing the M2 macrophages to much desired M1 phase by inducing higgh levels of oxidative burst and inflammatory cytokines. Consequently, the apoptosis was induced in glioblastoma cells establishing the suitablity of CpG ODN carrying nanoformulations as emerging therapeutic intervention for GBM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarika Singh
- Division of Toxicology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
| | | | - Pratibha Pandey
- Department of Bioengineering, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | - Vipendra Kumar Singh
- Environmental Carcinogenesis Laboratory, Food Drug and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India
| | - Uzma Sayyed
- Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | - Rafia Shekh
- Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, India
| | - Preeti Bajpai
- Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, India.,Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Motihari, Bihar
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Alizadeh D, White EE, Sanchez TC, Liu S, Zhang L, Badie B, Berlin JM. Immunostimulatory CpG on Carbon Nanotubes Selectively Inhibits Migration of Brain Tumor Cells. Bioconjug Chem 2018. [PMID: 29526082 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.8b00146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Even when treated with aggressive current therapies, patients with glioblastoma usually survive less than two years and exhibit a high rate of recurrence. CpG is an oligonucleotide that activates the innate immune system via Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) activation. Injection of CpG into glioblastoma tumors showed promise as an immunotherapy in mouse models but proved disappointing in human trials. One aspect of glioma that is not addressed by CpG therapy alone is the highly invasive nature of glioma cells, which is associated with resistance to radiation and chemotherapy. Here, we demonstrate that single-walled carbon nanotubes noncovalently functionalized with CpG (SWNT/CpG), which retain the immunostimulatory property of the CpG, selectively inhibit the migration of glioma cells and not macrophages without affecting cell viability or proliferation. SWNT/CpG also selectively decreased NF-κB activation in glioma cells, while activating macrophages by induction of the TLR9/NF-κB pathway, as we have previously reported. The migration inhibition of glioma cells was correlated with selective reduction of intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), suggesting that an antioxidant-based mechanism mediates the observed effects. To the best of our knowledge, SWNT/CpG is the first nanomaterial that inhibits the migration of cancer cells while stimulating the immune system.
Collapse
|
7
|
Sabah-Ozcan S, Baser A, Olcucu T, Barıs IC, Elmas L, Tuncay L, Eskicorapci S, Turk NS, Caner V. Human TLR gene family members are differentially expressed in patients with urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. Urol Oncol 2017; 35:674.e11-674.e17. [PMID: 28843340 DOI: 10.1016/j.urolonc.2017.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 07/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have an important role in the activation of both innate and adaptive immunity in response to pathogens and endogenous danger signals from damaged or dying cells. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between urothelial carcinoma (UC) and TLR expression. BASIC PROCEDURES Real-time polymerase chain reaction evaluation was made of the messenger RNA expression of TLRs 1-10 in 24 UC samples and 46 nontumoral bladder tissue samples. The levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8) in the urine samples were also determined with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. MAIN FINDINGS TLR2-7 and TLR10 expressions were significantly higher in UC than in the control group (P<0.05 for all comparisons). No concordance was found between matched tumor tissue and urine samples in terms of TLR expression. IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8 levels were significantly higher in urine specimens of patients with UC (P = 0.033, P = 0.001, and P = 0.008, respectively). PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS The results of this study demonstrated that the TLR gene expression profiles reflect the heterogeneity within UC. These results might also prompt further investigation to better understand the role of the TLR gene family expression in the tumor progression of UC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seda Sabah-Ozcan
- Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey
| | - Aykut Baser
- Department of Urology, School of Medicine, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Taha Olcucu
- Department of Urology, School of Medicine, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Ikbal Cansu Barıs
- Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Levent Elmas
- Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Levent Tuncay
- Department of Urology, School of Medicine, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
| | | | - Nilay Sen Turk
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
| | - Vildan Caner
- Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Mu L, Wang Y, Wang Y, Zhang H, Shang D, Tan F, Li Y, Chen X. Tumor Location and Survival Outcomes in Adult Patients with Supratentorial Glioblastoma by Levels of Toll-Like Receptor 9 Expression. World Neurosurg 2016; 97:279-283. [PMID: 27744078 DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2016.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2016] [Revised: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is a key immunotherapy target for glioblastoma (GBM). This study explored the correlation of TLR9 expression with tumor location and survival outcomes in patients with supratentorial GBM. METHODS We retrospectively identified 46 patients with supratentorial GBMs and divided them into those with high TLR9 (TRL9High) and low TLR9 (TRL9Low) levels. The 2 groups were compared by patients' ages, sex, preoperative Karnofsky Performance Scale (KPS) score, resection extent, tumor location, progression-free survival (PFS), and overall survival (OS). RESULTS The TLR9 expression percentages for the GBM specimens were TRL9High: 72% (33/46) and TRL9Low: 28% (13/46). The 2 groups showed no differences in patient age (P = 0.147) and sex (χ2 = 0.002, P = 0.966), preoperative KPS score (χ2 = 0.033, P = 0.855), or resection extent (χ2 = 2.405, P = 0.121). Location differed significantly, with 85% (11/13) of TRL9Low tumors in the left hemisphere and 45% (15/33) of TRL9High tumors on the same side (χ2 = 5.82, P = 0.016). The TRL9Low group had a median PFS of 612 days (range, 77-926 days), significantly longer than the TRL9High group (355 days; range, 105-861 days; P = 0.042). Median OS of the TRL9Low group (733 days; range, 163-969 days) was also significantly longer than in the TRL9High group (396 days; range, 135-1024 days; P = 0.020). CONCLUSIONS Patients with TRL9Low supratentorial GBM tend to have longer survival than those with higher TLR9 expression. Such tumors show a location preference for the left hemisphere.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Linsen Mu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Brain Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Fangcun, Liwan District, Guangdong Province, P. R. China
| | - Yongzhi Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Yonggang Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Hongbo Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hubei Provincal Hospital of Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Dewei Shang
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Brain Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Fangcun, Liwan District, Guangdong Province, P. R. China
| | - Fuqiang Tan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Brain Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Fangcun, Liwan District, Guangdong Province, P. R. China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Brain Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University (Guangzhou Huiai Hospital), Fangcun, Liwan District, Guangdong Province, P. R. China
| | - Xuzhu Chen
- Department of Neuroimaging, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, P. R. China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Predictive and prognostic value of TLR9 and NFKBIA gene expression as potential biomarkers for human glioma diagnosis. J Neurol Sci 2016; 368:314-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2016.07.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 07/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
|
10
|
Meseure D, Vacher S, Drak Alsibai K, Trassard M, Nicolas A, Leclere R, Lerebours F, Guinebretiere JM, Marangoni E, Lidereau R, Bieche I. Biopathological Significance of TLR9 Expression in Cancer Cells and Tumor Microenvironment Across Invasive Breast Carcinomas Subtypes. CANCER MICROENVIRONMENT 2016; 9:107-118. [PMID: 27392414 DOI: 10.1007/s12307-016-0186-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors mainly expressed by cells of the immune system but also by epithelial tumor cells. Little is known about expression patterns of TLR genes in breast tumors, and their clinical significance is unclear. The aim of our study was to investigate expression of TLRs pathway components in pre-invasive breast lesions and invasive breast carcinomas (IBCs). We used RT-PCR assays to quantify mRNA levels of the 10 TLR genes and genes involved in TLR pathways in 350 breast tumors from patients with known clinical/pathological status and long-term outcome. Sets of 158 breast samples were also analyzed by immunochemistry including; 40 early noninvasive breast lesions, 38 IBCs and 80 triple negative carcinomas subtype (TNCs). We identified TLR9 as the major TLR gene family member upregulated in breast tumors and more particularly in TNCs. Immunohistochemical studies demonstrated that TLR9 protein was expressed in tumor epithelial and stromal cells of the TLR9 mRNA-overexpressing tumors. TLR9 overexpression appears very early during breast carcinogenesis. High TLR9 levels were associated with favorable outcome in the TNC sub-group. TLR9 overexpression was associated with alterations of down-stream components of the TLR9 signaling pathway, epithelio-mesenchymal transition (EMT) induction and EGFR pathway deregulation. TNCs with TLR9 overexpression were significantly correlated with development of a fibrous and inflammatory microenvironment with variable status of nuclear phosphoSTAT3. Our results suggest that TLR9 could play a role in TNC carcinogenesis and could be useful as predictive biomarker and therapeutic target.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Didier Meseure
- Unit of Pharmacogenomics, Curie Institute, 26 rue d'Ulm, F-75248, Paris Cedex 05, France. .,Platform of Investigative Pathology, Curie Institute, Paris, France. .,Department of Biopathology, Curie Institute, Paris, France.
| | - Sophie Vacher
- Unit of Pharmacogenomics, Curie Institute, 26 rue d'Ulm, F-75248, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | | | | | - André Nicolas
- Platform of Investigative Pathology, Curie Institute, Paris, France
| | - Renaud Leclere
- Department of Biopathology, Curie Institute, Paris, France
| | - Florence Lerebours
- Unit of Pharmacogenomics, Curie Institute, 26 rue d'Ulm, F-75248, Paris Cedex 05, France.,Department of Medical Oncology, Curie Institute, Paris, France
| | | | - Elisabetta Marangoni
- Laboratory of Preclinical Investigation, Translational Research Department, Curie Institute, Paris, France
| | - Rosette Lidereau
- Unit of Pharmacogenomics, Curie Institute, 26 rue d'Ulm, F-75248, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Ivan Bieche
- Unit of Pharmacogenomics, Curie Institute, 26 rue d'Ulm, F-75248, Paris Cedex 05, France.,EA 7331, University of Paris Descartes, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Foronjy RF, Salathe MA, Dabo AJ, Baumlin N, Cummins N, Eden E, Geraghty P. TLR9 expression is required for the development of cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2016; 311:L154-66. [PMID: 27288485 PMCID: PMC4967186 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00073.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-9, a pathogen recognition receptor that recognizes unmethylated CpG sequences in microbial DNA molecules, is linked to the pathogenesis of several lung diseases. TLR9 expression and signaling was investigated in animal and cell models of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). We observed enhanced TLR9 expression in mouse lungs following exposure to cigarette smoke. Tlr9(-/-) mice were resistant to cigarette smoke-induced loss of lung function as determined by mean linear intercept, total lung capacity, lung compliance, and tissue elastance analysis. Tlr9 expression also regulated smoke-mediated immune cell recruitment to the lung; apoptosis; expression of granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), the CXCL5 protein, and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2); and protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) activity in the lung. PTP1B, a phosphatase with anti-inflammatory abilities, was identified as binding to TLR9. In vivo delivery of a TLR9 agonist enhanced TLR9 binding to PTP1B, which inactivated PTP1B. Ptp1b(-/-) mice had elevated lung concentrations of G-CSF, CXCL5, and MMP-2, and tissue expression of type-1 interferon following TLR9 agonist administration, compared with wild-type mice. TLR9 responses were further determined in fully differentiated normal human bronchial epithelial (NHBE) cells isolated from nonsmoker, smoker, and COPD donors, and then cultured at air liquid interface. NHBE cells from smokers and patients with COPD expressed more TLR9 and secreted greater levels of G-CSF, IL-6, CXCL5, IL-1β, and MMP-2 upon TLR9 ligand stimulation compared with cells from nonsmoker donors. Although TLR9 combats infection, our results indicate that TLR9 induction can affect lung function by inactivating PTP1B and upregulating expression of proinflammatory cytokines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert F Foronjy
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York; Department of Cell Biology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York
| | - Matthias A Salathe
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida; and
| | - Abdoulaye J Dabo
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York; Department of Cell Biology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York
| | - Nathalie Baumlin
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida; and
| | - Neville Cummins
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mount Sinai Roosevelt, Mount Sinai Health System, New York, New York
| | - Edward Eden
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mount Sinai Roosevelt, Mount Sinai Health System, New York, New York
| | - Patrick Geraghty
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York; Department of Cell Biology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York;
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Alvarado AG, Lathia JD. Taking a Toll on Self-Renewal: TLR-Mediated Innate Immune Signaling in Stem Cells. Trends Neurosci 2016; 39:463-471. [PMID: 27155992 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Innate immunity has evolved as the front-line cellular defense mechanism to acutely sense and decisively respond to microenvironmental alterations. The Toll-like receptor (TLR) family activates signaling pathways in response to stimuli and is well-characterized in both resident and infiltrating immune cells during neural inflammation, injury, and degeneration. Innate immune signaling has also been observed in neural cells during development and disease, including in the stem and progenitor cells that build the brain and are responsible for its homeostasis. Recently, the activation of developmental programs in malignant brain tumors has emerged as a driver for growth via cancer stem cells. In this review we discuss how innate immune signaling interfaces with stem cell maintenance in the normal and neoplastic brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro G Alvarado
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA; Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Justin D Lathia
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA; Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA; Rose Ella Burkhardt Brain Tumor and Neuro-Oncology Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA; Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Recent advances in the role of toll-like receptors and TLR agonists in immunotherapy for human glioma. Protein Cell 2014; 5:899-911. [PMID: 25411122 PMCID: PMC4259890 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-014-0112-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/30/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Gliomas are extremely aggressive brain tumors with a very poor prognosis. One of the more promising strategies for the treatment of human gliomas is targeted immunotherapy where antigens that are unique to the tumors are exploited to generate vaccines. The approach, however, is complicated by the fact that human gliomas escape immune surveillance by creating an immune suppressed microenvironment. In order to oppose the glioma imposed immune suppression, molecules and pathways involved in immune cell maturation, expansion, and migration are under intensive clinical investigation as adjuvant therapy. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) mediate many of these functions in immune cell types, and TLR agonists, thus, are currently primary candidate molecules to be used as important adjuvants in a variety of cancers. In animal models for glioma, TLR agonists have exhibited antitumor properties by facilitating antigen presentation and stimulating innate and adaptive immunity. In clinical trials, several TLR agonists have achieved survival benefit, and many more trials are recruiting or ongoing. However, a second complicating factor is that TLRs are also expressed on cancer cells where they can participate instead in a variety of tumor promoting activities including cell growth, proliferation, invasion, migration, and even stem cell maintenance. TLR agonists can, therefore, possibly play dual roles in tumor biology. Here, how TLRs and TLR agonists function in glioma biology and in anti-glioma therapies is summarized in an effort to provide a current picture of the sophisticated relationship of glioma with the immune system and the implications for immunotherapy.
Collapse
|
14
|
Herrmann A, Cherryholmes G, Schroeder A, Phallen J, Alizadeh D, Xin H, Wang T, Lee H, Lahtz C, Swiderski P, Armstrong B, Kowolik C, Gallia GL, Lim M, Brown C, Badie B, Forman S, Kortylewski M, Jove R, Yu H. TLR9 is critical for glioma stem cell maintenance and targeting. Cancer Res 2014; 74:5218-28. [PMID: 25047528 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-14-1151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Understanding supports for cancer stem-like cells in malignant glioma may suggest therapeutic strategies for their elimination. Here, we show that the Toll-like receptor TLR9 is elevated in glioma stem-like cells (GSC) in which it contributes to glioma growth. TLR9 overexpression is regulated by STAT3, which is required for GSC maintenance. Stimulation of TLR9 with a CpG ligand (CpG ODN) promoted GSC growth, whereas silencing TLR9 expression abrogated GSC development. CpG-ODN treatment induced Frizzled4-dependent activation of JAK2, thereby activating STAT3. Targeted delivery of siRNA into GSC was achieved via TLR9 using CpG-siRNA conjugates. Through local or systemic treatment, administration of CpG-Stat3 siRNA to silence STAT3 in vivo reduced GSC along with glioma growth. Our findings identify TLR9 as a functional marker for GSC and a target for the delivery of efficacious therapeutics for glioma treatment. Cancer Res; 74(18); 5218-28. ©2014 AACR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Herrmann
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapeutics and Tumor Immunology, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Gregory Cherryholmes
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapeutics and Tumor Immunology, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Anne Schroeder
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Jillian Phallen
- Department of Neurosurgery at the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Darya Alizadeh
- Division of Neurosurgery, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Hong Xin
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapeutics and Tumor Immunology, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Tianyi Wang
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapeutics and Tumor Immunology, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Heehyoung Lee
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapeutics and Tumor Immunology, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Christoph Lahtz
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapeutics and Tumor Immunology, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Piotr Swiderski
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Brian Armstrong
- Department of Neuroscience, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Claudia Kowolik
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Gary L Gallia
- Department of Neurosurgery at the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Michael Lim
- Department of Neurosurgery at the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Christine Brown
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Behnam Badie
- Division of Neurosurgery, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Stephen Forman
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Marcin Kortylewski
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapeutics and Tumor Immunology, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Richard Jove
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Hua Yu
- Department of Cancer Immunotherapeutics and Tumor Immunology, Beckman Research Institute at City of Hope Medical Center, Duarte, California. Center for Translational Medicine, Shanghai Zhangjiang High-Tech Park, Shanghai, China.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Kim TH, Jeong KH, Kim SK, Lee SH, Ihm CG, Lee TW, Moon JY, Yoon YC, Chung JH, Park SJ, Kang SW, Kim YH. TLR9gene polymorphism (rs187084, rs352140): association with acute rejection and estimated glomerular filtration rate in renal transplant recipients. Int J Immunogenet 2013; 40:502-8. [DOI: 10.1111/iji.12069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2013] [Revised: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. H. Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine; Busan Paik Hospital; Inje University; Busan Korea
| | - K.-H. Jeong
- Department of Internal Medicine; Kyunghee University; Seoul Korea
| | - S. K. Kim
- Kohwang Medical Research Institute; School of Medicine; Kyunghee University; Seoul Korea
| | - S. H. Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine; Kyunghee University; Seoul Korea
| | - C. G. Ihm
- Department of Internal Medicine; Kyunghee University; Seoul Korea
| | - T. W. Lee
- Department of Internal Medicine; Kyunghee University; Seoul Korea
| | - J. Y. Moon
- Department of Internal Medicine; Kyunghee University; Seoul Korea
| | - Y. C. Yoon
- Department of Chest Surgery; College of Medicine; Inje University; Busan Korea
| | - J.-H. Chung
- Kohwang Medical Research Institute; School of Medicine; Kyunghee University; Seoul Korea
| | - S. J. Park
- Department of Internal Medicine; Busan Paik Hospital; Inje University; Busan Korea
| | - S. W. Kang
- Department of Internal Medicine; Busan Paik Hospital; Inje University; Busan Korea
| | - Y. H. Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine; Busan Paik Hospital; Inje University; Busan Korea
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Vacchelli E, Eggermont A, Sautès-Fridman C, Galon J, Zitvogel L, Kroemer G, Galluzzi L. Trial Watch: Toll-like receptor agonists for cancer therapy. Oncoimmunology 2013; 2:e25238. [PMID: 24083080 PMCID: PMC3782517 DOI: 10.4161/onci.25238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have long been known for their ability to initiate innate immune responses upon exposure to conserved microbial components such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and double-stranded RNA. More recently, this family of pattern recognition receptors has been attributed a critical role in the elicitation of anticancer immune responses, raising interest in the development of immunochemotherapeutic regimens based on natural or synthetic TLR agonists. In spite of such an intense wave of preclinical and clinical investigation, only three TLR agonists are currently licensed by FDA for use in cancer patients: bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG), an attenuated strain of Mycobacterium bovis that operates as a mixed TLR2/TLR4 agonist; monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL), a derivative of Salmonella minnesota that functions as a potent agonist of TLR4; and imiquimod, a synthetic imidazoquinoline that activates TLR7. One year ago, in the August and September issues of OncoImmunology, we described the main biological features of TLRs and discussed the progress of clinical studies evaluating the safety and therapeutic potential of TLR agonists in cancer patients. Here, we summarize the latest developments in this exciting area of research, focusing on preclinical studies that have been published during the last 13 mo and clinical trials launched in the same period to investigate the antineoplastic activity of TLR agonists.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Vacchelli
- Institut Gustave Roussy; Villejuif, France ; Université Paris-Sud/Paris XI; Le Kremlin-Bicêtre; Paris, France ; INSERM, U848; Villejuif, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Yu L, Wang L, Chen S. Dual character of Toll-like receptor signaling: pro-tumorigenic effects and anti-tumor functions. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2012; 1835:144-54. [PMID: 23232186 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2012.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2012] [Revised: 10/29/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
As a major class of pattern-recognition receptors, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a critical role in defense against invading pathogens. Increasing evidence demonstrates that, in addition to infection, TLRs are involved in other important pathological processes, such as tumorigenesis. Activation of TLRs results in opposing outcomes, pro-tumorigenic effects and anti-tumor functions. TLR signaling can inhibit apoptosis and promote chronic inflammation-induced tumorigenesis. TLR activation in tumor cells and immune cells can induce production of cytokines, increase tumor cell proliferation and apoptosis resistance, promote invasion and metastasis, and inhibit immune cell activity resulting in tumor immune escape. In contrast, the engagement of other TLRs directly induces growth inhibition and apoptosis of tumor cells and triggers activation of immune cells enhancing anti-tumor immune responses. Thus, the interpretation of the precise function of each TLR in tumors is very important for targeting TLRs and using TLR agonists in tumor therapy. We review the role of TLR signaling in tumors and discuss the factors that affect outcomes of TLR activation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li Yu
- Department of Pathology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Republic of China.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Wainwright DA, Nigam P, Thaci B, Dey M, Lesniak MS. Recent developments on immunotherapy for brain cancer. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2012; 17:181-202. [PMID: 22533851 DOI: 10.1517/14728214.2012.679929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Brain tumors are a unique class of cancers since they are anatomically shielded from normal immunosurveillance by the blood-brain barrier, lack a normal lymphatic drainage system and reside in a potently immunosuppressive environment. Of the primary brain cancers, glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive in adults. Although treatment options include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, the average lifespan of GBM patients remains at only 14.6 months post-diagnosis. AREAS COVERED A review of key cellular and molecular immune system mediators in the context of brain tumors including TGF-β, cytotoxic T cells, Tregs, CTLA-4, PD-1 and IDO is discussed. In addition, prognostic factors, currently utilized immunotherapeutic strategies, ongoing clinical trials and a discussion of new or potential immunotherapies for brain tumor patients are considered. EXPERT OPINION Current drugs that improve the quality of life and overall survival in patients with brain tumors, especially for GBM, are poorly effective. This disease requires a reanalysis of currently accepted treatment strategies, as well as newly designed approaches. Here, we review the fundamental aspects of immunosuppression in brain tumors, new and promising immunotherapeutic drugs as well as combinatorial strategies that focus on the simultaneous inhibition of immunosuppressive hubs, both in immune and brain tumor cells, which is critical to consider for achieving future success for the treatment of this devastating disease.
Collapse
|