CSF Tau supplements 14-3-3 protein detection for sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease diagnosis while transitioning to next generation diagnostics

A Systematic Review of Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Attempts

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is a rare neurodegenerative and invariably fatal disease with a fulminant course once the first clinical symptoms emerge. Its incidence appears to be rising, although the increasing figures may be related to the improved diagnostic tools. Due to the highly variable clinical picture at onset, many specialty physicians should be aware of this disease and refer the patient to a neurologist for complete evaluation. The diagnostic criteria have been changed based on the considerable progress made in research on the pathogenesis and on the identification of reliable biomarkers. Moreover, accumulated knowledge on pathogenesis led to the identification of a series of possible therapeutic targets, although, given the low incidence and very rapid course, the evaluation of safety and efficacy of these therapeutic strategies is challenging.

Molecular Biomarkers of Neurodegenerative Disorders: A Practical Guide to Their Appropriate Use and Interpretation in Clinical Practice

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) represent a group of different diseases characterized by the progressive degeneration and death of the nervous system's cells. The diagnosis is challenging, especially in the early stages, due to no specific clinical signs and symptoms. In this context, laboratory medicine could support clinicians in detecting and differentiating NDs. Indeed, biomarkers could indicate the pathological mechanisms underpinning NDs. The ideal biofluid for detecting the biomarkers of NDs is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which has limitations, hampering its widespread use in clinical practice. However, intensive efforts are underway to introduce high-sensitivity analytical methods to detect ND biomarkers in alternative nonivasive biofluid, such as blood or saliva. This study presents an overview of the ND molecular biomarkers currently used in clinical practice. For some diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease or multiple sclerosis, biomarkers are well established and recommended by guidelines. However, for most NDs, intensive research is ongoing to identify reliable and specific biomarkers, and no consensus has yet been achieved.

Alzheimer's disease biomarker utilization at first referral enhances differential diagnostic precision with simultaneous exclusion of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

Most suspected Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) cases are eventually diagnosed with other disorders. We assessed the utility of investigating Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers and neurofilament light (NfL) in patients when CJD is suspected. The study cohort consisted of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples referred for CJD biomarker screening wherein amyloid beta 1-42 (Aβ1-42), phosphorylated tau 181 (p-tau181), and total tau (t-tau) could be assessed via Elecsys immunoassays (n = 419) and NfL via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA; n = 161). In the non-CJD sub cohort (n = 371), 59% (219/371) had A+T- (abnormal Aβ1-42 only) and 21% (79/371) returned A+T+ (abnormal Aβ1-42 and p-tau181). In the 48 CJD subjects, a similar AD biomarker profile distribution was observed. To partially address the prevalence of likely pre-symptomatic AD, NfL was utilized to assess for neuronal damage. NfL was abnormal in 76% (25/33) of A+T- subjects 40 to 69 years of age, 80% (20/25) of whom had normal t-tau. This study reinforces AD as an important differential diagnosis of suspected CJD, highlighting that incorporating AD biomarkers and NfL at initial testing is worthwhile.

The advances in the early and accurate diagnosis of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and other prion diseases: where are we today?

INTRODUCTION

Before the introduction of MRI diffusion-weighted images (DWI), the diagnosis of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) relied upon nonspecific findings including clinical symptoms, EEG abnormalities, and elevated levels of cerebrospinal fluid 14-3-3 protein. Subsequently, the use of DWI has improved diagnostic accuracy, but it sometimes remains difficult to differentiate CJD from encephalitis, epilepsy, and other dementing disorders. The revised diagnostic criteria include real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC), detecting small amounts of CJD-specific prion protein, and clinically sensitive DWI. Combining these techniques has further improved diagnostic accuracy, enabling earlier diagnosis.

AREAS COVERED

Herein, the authors review the recent advances in diagnostic methods and revised diagnostic criteria for sporadic CJD. They also discuss other prion diseases, such as variant CJD and chronic wasting disease, where the emergence of new types is a concern.

EXPERT OPINION

Despite improvements in diagnostic methods and criteria, some subtypes of prion disease are still difficult to diagnose, and even the diagnosis using the most innovative RT-QuIC test remains a challenge in terms of accuracy and standardization. However, these revised criteria can be adapted to the emergence of new types of prion diseases. It is essential to continue careful surveillance and update information on the latest prion disease phenotypes.

Diagnostic performance of CSF biomarkers in a well-characterized Australian cohort of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

The most frequently utilized biomarkers to support a pre-mortem clinical diagnosis of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) include concentrations of the 14-3-3 and total tau (T-tau) proteins, as well as the application of protein amplification techniques, such as the real time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay, in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Utilizing CSF from a cohort of neuropathologically confirmed (definite) sCJD (n = 50) and non-CJD controls (n = 48), we established the optimal cutpoints for the fully automated Roche Elecsys^® immunoassay for T-tau and the CircuLexTM 14-3-3 Gamma ELISA and compared these to T-tau protein measured using a commercially available assay (INNOTEST hTAU Ag) and 14-3-3 protein detection by western immunoblot (WB). These CSF specimens were also assessed for presence of misfolded prion protein using the RT-QuIC assay. T-tau showed similar diagnostic performance irrespective of the assay utilized, with ~90% sensitivity and specificity. The 14-3-3 protein detection by western blot (WB) has 87.5% sensitivity and 66.7% specificity. The 14-3-3 ELISA demonstrated 81.3% sensitivity and 84.4% specificity. RT-QuIC was the single best performing assay, with a sensitivity of 92.7% and 100% specificity. Our study indicates that a combination of all three CSF biomarkers increases sensitivity and offers the best chance of case detection pre-mortem. Only a single sCJD case in our cohort was negative across the three biomarkers, emphasizing the value of autopsy brain examination on all suspected CJD cases to ensure maximal case ascertainment.

Cerebrospinal fluid neurofilament light chain differentiates primary psychiatric disorders from rapidly progressive, Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal disorders in clinical settings

INTRODUCTION

Many patients with cognitive and neuropsychiatric symptoms face diagnostic delay and misdiagnosis. We investigated whether cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) neurofilament light (NfL) and total-tau (t-tau) could assist in the clinical scenario of differentiating neurodegenerative (ND) from psychiatric disorders (PSY), and rapidly progressive disorders.

METHODS

Biomarkers were examined in patients from specialist services (ND and PSY) and a national Creutzfeldt-Jakob registry (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease [CJD] and rapidly progressive dementias/atypically rapid variants of common ND, RapidND).

RESULTS

A total of 498 participants were included: 197 ND, 67 PSY, 161 CJD, 48 RapidND, and 20 controls. NfL was elevated in ND compared to PSY and controls, with highest levels in CJD and RapidND. NfL distinguished ND from PSY with 95%/78% positive/negative predictive value, 92%/87% sensitivity/specificity, 91% accuracy. NfL outperformed t-tau in most real-life clinical diagnostic dilemma scenarios, except distinguishing CJD from RapidND.

DISCUSSION

We demonstrated strong generalizable evidence for the diagnostic utility of CSF NfL in differentiating ND from psychiatric disorders, with high accuracy.

Diagnostic accuracy of cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers in genetic prion diseases

Genetic prion diseases are a rare and diverse group of fatal neurodegenerative disorders caused by pathogenic sequence variations in the prion protein gene, PRNP. Data on CSF biomarkers in patients with genetic prion diseases are limited and conflicting results have been reported for unclear reasons.

Here, we aimed to analyse the diagnostic accuracy of CSF biomarkers currently used in prion clinical diagnosis in 302 symptomatic genetic prion disease cases from 11 prion diagnostic centres, encompassing a total of 36 different pathogenic sequence variations within the open reading frame of PRNP.

CSF samples were assessed for the surrogate markers of neurodegeneration, 14-3-3 protein (14-3-3), total-tau protein (t-tau) and α-synuclein and for prion seeding activity through the real-time quaking-induced conversion assay. Biomarker results were compared with those obtained in healthy and neurological controls. For the most prevalent PRNP pathogenic sequence variations, biomarker accuracy and associations between biomarkers, demographic and genetic determinants were assessed. Additionally, the prognostic value of biomarkers for predicting total disease duration from symptom onset to death was investigated.

High sensitivity of the four biomarkers was detected for genetic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease associated with the E200K and V210I mutations, but low sensitivity was observed for mutations associated with Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker syndrome and fatal familial insomnia. All biomarkers showed good to excellent specificity using the standard cut-offs often used for sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. In genetic prion diseases related to octapeptide repeat insertions, the biomarker sensitivity correlated with the number of repeats. New genetic prion disease-specific cut-offs for 14-3-3, t-tau and α-synuclein were calculated. Disease duration in genetic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease-E200K, Gerstmann–Sträussler–Scheinker-P102L and fatal familial insomnia was highly dependent on PRNP codon 129 MV polymorphism and was significantly associated with biomarker levels.

In a large cohort of genetic prion diseases, the simultaneous analysis of CSF prion disease biomarkers allowed the determination of new mutation-specific cut-offs improving the discrimination of genetic prion disease cases and unveiled genetic prion disease-specific associations with disease duration.

Total and Phosphorylated Cerebrospinal Fluid Tau in the Differential Diagnosis of Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease and Rapidly Progressive Alzheimer’s Disease

Background: CSF total-tau (t-tau) became a standard cerebrospinal fluid biomarker in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). In parallel, extremely elevated levels were observed in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). Therefore, tau is also considered as an alternative CJD biomarker, potentially complicating the interpretation of results. We investigated CSF t-tau and the t-tau/phosphorylated tau181 ratio in the differential diagnosis of sCJD and rapidly-progressive AD (rpAD). In addition, high t-tau concentrations and associated tau-ratios were explored in an unselected laboratory cohort. Methods: Retrospective analyses included n = 310 patients with CJD (n = 205), non-rpAD (n = 65), and rpAD (n = 40). The diagnostic accuracies of biomarkers were calculated and compared. Differential diagnoses were evaluated in patients from a neurochemistry laboratory with CSF t-tau >1250 pg/mL (n = 199 out of 7036). Results: CSF t-tau showed an AUC of 0.942 in the discrimination of sCJD from AD and 0.918 in the discrimination from rpAD. The tau ratio showed significantly higher AUCs (p < 0.001) of 0.992 versus non-rpAD and 0.990 versus rpAD. In the neurochemistry cohort, prion diseases accounted for only 25% of very high CSF t-tau values. High tau-ratios were observed in CJD, but also in non-neurodegenerative diseases. Conclusions: CSF t-tau is a reliable biomarker for sCJD, but false positive results may occur, especially in rpAD and acute encephalopathies. The t-tau/p-tau ratio may improve the diagnostic accuracy in centers where specific biomarkers are not available.

Validation and Application of Skin RT-QuIC to Patients in China with Probable CJD

The definite diagnosis of human sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (sCJD) largely depends on postmortem neuropathology and PrP^Sc detection in the brain. The development of real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples makes it possible for premortem diagnosis for sCJD. To test the diagnostic potential of RT-QuIC of skin specimens for probable sCJD, we collected the paired skin and CSF samples from 51 recruited living patients referred to the Chinese CJD surveillance center, including 34 probable sCJD, 14 non-CJD, and 3 genetic prion disease (gPrD). The samples were subjected to RT-QuIC assays using recombinant hamster PrP protein rHaPrP90-231 as the substrate. Using skin RT-QuIC assay, 91.2% (31/34) probable sCJD patients, and 1 T188K genetic CJD (gCJD) cases showed positive prion-seeding activity, while 85.7% (12/14) non-CJD patients were negative. CSF RT-QuIC positive seeding activity was only observed in 14 probable sCJD patients. Analysis of the reactivity of 38 positive skin RT-QuIC tests revealed that the positive rates in the preparations of 10⁻², 10⁻³ and 10⁻⁴ diluted skin samples were 88.6% (39/44), 63.6% (28/44), and 25.0% (11/44), respectively. Eleven probable sCJD patients donated two skin specimens collected at different sites simultaneously. Although 95.5% (21/22) skin RT-QuIC elicited positive reaction, the reactivity varied. Our preliminary data indicate high sensitivity and specificity of skin RT-QuIC in prion detection for Chinese probable sCJD and highlight that skin prion-seeding activity is a reliable biomarker for premortem diagnosis of human prion disease.

Biomarkers and diagnostic guidelines for sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is a fatal neurodegenerative disease caused by misfolded prion proteins (PrP^Sc). Effective therapeutics are currently not available and accurate diagnosis can be challenging. Clinical diagnostic criteria use a combination of characteristic neuropsychiatric symptoms, CSF proteins 14-3-3, MRI, and EEG. Supportive biomarkers, such as high CSF total tau, could aid the diagnostic process. However, discordant studies have led to controversies about the clinical value of some established surrogate biomarkers. Development and clinical application of disease-specific protein aggregation and amplification assays, such as real-time quaking induced conversion (RT-QuIC), have constituted major breakthroughs for the confident pre-mortem diagnosis of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Updated criteria for the diagnosis of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, including application of RT-QuIC, should improve early clinical confirmation, surveillance, assessment of PrP^Sc seeding activity in different tissues, and trial monitoring. Moreover, emerging blood-based, prognostic, and potentially pre-symptomatic biomarker candidates are under investigation.

Anti-N-methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis Mimicking Sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease

Objectives: Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis and sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (sCJD) share similar clinical features. Here, we present two unusual cases of anti-NMDAR encephalitis who were misdiagnosed as sCJD at first.

Methods: We described two patients' clinical manifestations, as well as the string of symptomatological evolution, treatments, and follow-up results.

Results: Our patients presented with rapidly progressive dementia, memory problems, psychiatric symptoms, and movement disorders, and we considered all these symptoms as a presenting feature of sCJD at first, but the cerebrospinal fluid examination showed positive results for both the 14-3-3 protein and antibodies against NMDAR. Immunomodulatory treatment led to a resolution of these deficits, and both of them remained in remission after treatment.

Conclusion: Anti-NMDAR encephalitis can present with rapidly progressive cognitive decline, and sometimes laboratory investigations can be misleading. The examination for the presence of NMDAR antibodies is necessary, even with the presence of 14-3-3 protein. Early immunomodulatory therapy should be considered, especially for patients with high titers of NMDAR antibodies.