Skin incision induces expression of axonal regeneration-related genes in adult rat spinal sensory neurons

Integrative Analysis Reveals the Expression Pattern of SOX9 in Satellite Glial Cells after Sciatic Nerve Injury

BACKGROUND

Several complex cellular and gene regulatory processes are involved in peripheral nerve repair. This study uses bioinformatics to analyze the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the satellite glial cells of mice following sciatic nerve injury.

METHODS

R software screens differentially expressed genes, and the WebGestalt functional enrichment analysis tool conducts Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomics (KEGG) pathway analysis. The Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins constructs protein interaction networks, and the cytoHubba plug-in in the Cytoscape software predicts core genes. Subsequently, the sciatic nerve injury model of mice was established and the dorsal root ganglion satellite glial cells were isolated and cultured. Satellite glial cells-related markers were verified by immunofluorescence staining. Real-time polymerase chain reaction assay and Western blotting assay were used to detect the mRNA and protein expression of Sox9 in satellite glial cells.

RESULTS

A total of 991 DEGs were screened, of which 383 were upregulated, and 508 were downregulated. The GO analysis revealed the processes of biosynthesis, negative regulation of cell development, PDZ domain binding, and other biological processes were enriched in DEGs. According to the KEGG pathway analysis, DEGs are primarily involved in steroid biosynthesis, hedgehog signaling pathway, terpenoid backbone biosynthesis, American lateral skeleton, and melanoma pathways. According to various cytoHubba algorithms, the common core genes in the protein-protein interaction network are Atf3, Mmp2, and Sox9. Among these, Sox9 was reported to be involved in the central nervous system and the generation and development of astrocytes and could mediate the transformation between neurogenic and glial cells. The experimental results showed that satellite glial cell marker GS were co-labeled with Sox9; stem cell characteristic markers Nestin and p75NTR were labeled satellite glial cells. The mRNA and protein expression of Sox9 in satellite glial cells were increased after sciatic nerve injury.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, bioinformatics was used to analyze the DEGs of satellite glial cells after sciatic nerve injury, and transcription factors related to satellite glial cells were screened, among which Sox9 may be associated with the fate of satellite glial cells.

Mast cell-derived BH4 is a critical mediator of postoperative pain

Postoperative pain affects most patients after major surgery and can transition to chronic pain. Here, we discovered that postoperative pain hypersensitivity correlated with markedly increased local levels of the metabolite BH4. Gene transcription and reporter mouse analyses after skin injury identified neutrophils, macrophages and mast cells as primary postoperative sources of GTP cyclohydrolase-1 (Gch1) expression, the rate-limiting enzyme in BH4 production. While specific Gch1 deficiency in neutrophils or macrophages had no effect, mice deficient in mast cells or mast cell-specific Gch1 showed drastically decreased postoperative pain after surgery. Skin injury induced the nociceptive neuropeptide substance P, which directly triggers the release of BH4-dependent serotonin in mouse and human mast cells. Substance P receptor blockade substantially ameliorated postoperative pain. Our findings underline the unique position of mast cells at the neuro-immune interface and highlight substance P-driven mast cell BH4 production as promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of postoperative pain.

Gadd45 in Neuronal Development, Function, and Injury

The growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible (Gadd) 45 proteins have been associated with numerous cellular mechanisms including cell cycle control, DNA damage sensation and repair, genotoxic stress, neoplasia, and molecular epigenetics. The genes were originally identified in in vitro screens of irradiation- and interleukin-induced transcription and have since been implicated in a host of normal and aberrant central nervous system processes. These include early and postnatal development, injury, cancer, memory, aging, and neurodegenerative and psychiatric disease states. The proteins act through a variety of molecular signaling cascades including the MAPK cascade, cell cycle control mechanisms, histone regulation, and epigenetic DNA demethylation. In this review, we provide a comprehensive discussion of the literature implicating each of the three members of the Gadd45 family in these processes.

Swallowing dysfunction following radiation to the rat mylohyoid muscle is associated with sensory neuron injury

Radiation-based treatments for oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal cancers result in impairments in swallowing mobility, but the mechanisms behind the dysfunction are not clear. The purpose of this study was to determine if we could establish an animal model of radiation-induced dysphagia in which mechanisms could be examined. We hypothesized that 1) radiation focused at the depth of the mylohyoid muscle would alter normal bolus transport and bolus size and 2) radiation to the mylohyoid muscle will induce an injury/stress-like response in trigeminal sensory neurons whose input might modulate swallow. Rats were exposed to 48 or 64 Gy of radiation to the mylohyoid given 8 Gy in 6 or 8 fractions. Swallowing function was evaluated by videofluoroscopy 2 and 4 wk following treatment. Neuronal injury/stress was analyzed in trigeminal ganglion by assessing activating transcription factor (ATF)3 and GAP-43 mRNAs at 2, 4, and 8 wk post treatment. Irradiated rats exhibited decreases in bolus movement through the pharynx and alterations in bolus clearance. In addition, ATF3 and GAP-43 mRNAs were upregulated in trigeminal ganglion in irradiated rats, suggesting that radiation to mylohyoid muscle induced an injury/stress response in neurons with cell bodies that are remote from the irradiated tissue. These results suggest that radiation-induced dysphagia can be assessed in the rat and radiation induces injury/stress-like responses in sensory neurons.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Radiation-based treatments for head and neck cancer can cause significant impairments in swallowing mobility. This study provides new evidence supporting the possibility of a neural contribution to the mechanisms of swallowing dysfunction in postradiation dysphagia. Our data demonstrated that radiation to the mylohyoid muscle, which induces functional deficits in swallowing, also provokes an injury/stress-like response in the ganglion, innervating the irradiated muscle.

The Length of Surgical Skin Incision in Postoperative Inflammatory Reaction

Background and Objectives:

Surgery provokes inflammatory and immune responses, so efforts have been made to reduce host response by using less invasive techniques. The purpose of this experimental study was to investigate the surgical stress induced by skin incision and the role of liver response in this process.

Methods:

Seventy male anesthetized Wistar rats were subjected to a midline incision confined strictly to the skin (dermis) of either 1 cm long (n = 20), 10 cm long (n = 20), or no incision (n = 20) or served as controls (n = 10). Skin trauma was left open for a 20-minutes period, and then was meticulously sutured. At 3 and 24 hours later, laparotomy was performed on half the rats of each group, for blood and liver sampling. In serum and liver homogenates, cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC)1/interleukin (IL)-8 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α levels were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and nitric oxide (NO) using a Griess reaction.

Results:

Skin trauma was found to significantly (P < .01) increase all inflammatory mediators tested (CINC1/IL-8, TNF-α, NO) in serum of operated rats versus controls, the increase being proportionally dependent on the length of skin incision. In liver homogenates, CINC1/IL-8 was significantly (P < .01) increased in operated animals versus controls, similarly to serum levels. In contrast, liver TNF-α levels were inversely related to serum levels, and a significant (P < .01) decrease in TNF-α was observed in liver homogenates of operated animals compared with the controls, indicating that the increased TNF-α in blood reflects liver TNF-α secretion.

Conclusion:

Our findings suggest that inflammatory and immune reactions induced by skin-only surgical trauma are closely correlated to the length of skin incision.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors prevent persistent hypersensitivity in an orofacial neuropathic pain model

Chronic orofacial pain is a significant health problem requiring identification of regulating processes. Involvement of epigenetic modifications that is reported for hindlimb neuropathic pain experimental models, however, is less well studied in cranial nerve pain models. Three independent observations reported here are the (1) epigenetic profile in mouse trigeminal ganglia (TG) after trigeminal inflammatory compression (TIC) nerve injury mouse model determined by gene expression microarray, (2) H3K9 acetylation pattern in TG by immunohistochemistry, and (3) efficacy of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors to attenuate development of hypersensitivity. After TIC injury, ipsilateral whisker pad mechanical sensitization develops by day 3 and persists well beyond day 21 in contrast to sham surgery. Global acetylation of H3K9 decreases at day 21 in ipsilateral TG . Thirty-four genes are significantly (p < 0.05) overexpressed in the ipsilateral TG by at least two-fold at either 3 or 21 days post-trigeminal inflammatory compression injury. The three genes most overexpressed three days post-trigeminal inflammatory compression nerve injury are nerve regeneration-associated gene ATF3, up 6.8-fold, and two of its regeneration-associated gene effector genes, Sprr1a and Gal, up 174- and 25-fold, respectively. Although transcription levels of 25 of 32 genes significantly overexpressed three days post-trigeminal inflammatory compression return to constitutive levels by day 21, these three regeneration-associated genes remain significantly overexpressed at the later time point. On day 21, when tissues are healed, other differentially expressed genes include 39 of the top 50 upregulated and downregulated genes. Remarkably, preemptive manipulation of gene expression with two HDAC inhibitors (HDACi's), suberanilohydroxamic acid (SAHA) and MS-275, reduces the magnitude and duration of whisker pad mechanical hypersensitivity and prevents the development of a persistent pain state. These findings suggest that trigeminal nerve injury leads to epigenetic modifications favoring overexpression of genes involved in nerve regeneration and that maintaining transcriptional homeostasis with epigenetic modifying drugs could help prevent the development of persistent pain.

ATF2, but not ATF3, participates in the maintenance of nerve injury-induced tactile allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia

Transcription factors are proteins that modulate the transcriptional rate of target genes in the nucleus in response to extracellular or cytoplasmic signals. Activating transcription factors 2 (ATF2) and 3 (ATF3) respond to environmental signals and maintain cellular homeostasis. There is evidence that inflammation and nerve injury modulate ATF2 and ATF3 expression. However, the function of these transcription factors in pain is unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the contribution of ATF2 and ATF3 to nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain. L5/6 spinal nerve ligation induced tactile allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. Moreover, nerve damage enhanced ATF2 and ATF3 protein expression in injured L5/6 dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord but not in uninjured L4 dorsal root ganglia. Nerve damage also enhanced ATF2 immunoreactivity in dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord 7 to 21 days post-injury. Repeated intrathecal post-treatment with a small-interfering RNA targeted against ATF2 (ATF2 siRNA) or anti-ATF2 antibody partially reversed tactile allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. In contrast, ATF3 siRNA or anti-ATF3 antibody did not modify nociceptive behaviors. ATF2 immunoreactivity was found in dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord co-labeling with NeuN mainly in non-peptidergic (IB4⁺) but also in peptidergic (CGRP⁺) neurons. ATF2 was found mainly in small- and medium-sized neurons. These results suggest that ATF2, but not ATF3, is found in strategic sites related to spinal nociceptive processing and participates in the maintenance of neuropathic pain in rats.

Transcriptional Changes in Dorsal Spinal Cord Persist after Surgical Incision Despite Preemptive Analgesia with Peripheral Resiniferatoxin

BACKGROUND

Peripheral nociceptors expressing the ion channel transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 1, play an important role in mediating postoperative pain. Signaling from these nociceptors in the peri- and postoperative period can lead to plastic changes in the spinal cord and, when controlled, can yield analgesia. The transcriptomic changes in the dorsal spinal cord after surgery, and potential coupling to transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 1-positive nociceptor signaling, remain poorly studied.

METHODS

Resiniferatoxin was injected subcutaneously into rat hind paw several minutes before surgical incision to inactivate transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 1-positive nerve terminals. The effects of resiniferatoxin on postincisional measures of pain were assessed through postoperative day 10 (n = 51). Transcriptomic changes in the dorsal spinal cord, with and without peripheral transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 1-positive nerve terminal inactivation, were assessed by RNA sequencing (n = 22).

RESULTS

Peripherally administered resiniferatoxin increased thermal withdrawal latency by at least twofold through postoperative day 4, increased mechanical withdrawal threshold by at least sevenfold through postoperative day 2, and decreased guarding score by 90% relative to vehicle control (P < 0.05). Surgical incision induced 70 genes in the dorsal horn, and these changes were specific to the ipsilateral dorsal horn. Gene induction with surgical incision persisted despite robust analgesia from resiniferatoxin pretreatment. Many of the genes induced were related to microglial activation, such as Cd11b and Iba1.

CONCLUSIONS

A single subcutaneous injection of resiniferatoxin before incision attenuated both evoked and nonevoked measures of postoperative pain. Surgical incision induced transcriptomic changes in the dorsal horn that persisted despite analgesia with resiniferatoxin, suggesting that postsurgical pain signals can be blocked without preventing transcription changes in the dorsal horn.

Distribution and chemical coding of sensory neurons innervating the skin of the porcine hindlimb

The aim of the present study was to establish the origin and chemical phenotyping of neurons involved in skin innervation of the porcine hind leg. The dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) of the lumbar (L₄-L₆) and sacral (S₁-S₃) spinal nerves were visualized using the fluorescent tracer Fast Blue (FB). The morphometric analysis of FB-positive (FB+)neurons showed that in the L₄, L₅, S₁ and S₂ DRGs, the small-sized perikarya constituted the major population, whereas in the L₆ and S₃ DRGs the medium-sized cells made up the major population. In all these ganglia, large-sized FB+ perikarya constituted only a small percentage of all FB+ neurons. Immunohistochemistry revealed that small- and medium-sized FB+ perikarya contained sensory markers such as: substance P (SP), calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP) and galanin (GAL); as well as various other factors such as somatostatin (SOM), calbindin-D28k (CB), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). Meanwhile large-sized FB+ perikarya usually expressed SP, CGRP or PACAP. In the lumbar DRGs, some large cells also contained SOM and CB. Double-labeling immunohistochemistry showed that SP-positive neurons co-expressed CGRP, GAL or PACAP; while PACAP-positive cells co-expressed GAL or nNOS. Neurons stained for SOM were also immunoreactive for CB or GAL, while neurons stained for nNOS were also immunoreactive for GAL. In conclusion, the present data has indicated that the distribution and chemical phenotyping of the porcine skin-projecting neurons are different within DRGs of the lumbar (forming a femoral nerve) and sacral (forming a sciatic nerve) spinal nerves.

Orthopedic surgery modulates neuropeptides and BDNF expression at the spinal and hippocampal levels

Pain is a critical component hindering recovery and regaining of function after surgery, particularly in the elderly. Understanding the role of pain signaling after surgery may lead to novel interventions for common complications such as delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction. Using a model of tibial fracture with intramedullary pinning in male mice, associated with cognitive deficits, we characterized the effects on the primary somatosensory system. Here we show that tibial fracture with pinning triggers cold allodynia and up-regulates nerve injury and inflammatory markers in dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) and spinal cord up to 2 wk after intervention. At 72 h after surgery, there is an increase in activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3), the neuropeptides galanin and neuropeptide Y (NPY), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), as well as neuroinflammatory markers including ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and the fractalkine receptor CX3CR1 in DRGs. Using an established model of complete transection of the sciatic nerve for comparison, we observed similar but more pronounced changes in these markers. However, protein levels of BDNF remained elevated for a longer period after fracture. In the hippocampus, BDNF protein levels were increased, yet there were no changes in Bdnf mRNA in the parent granule cell bodies. Further, c-Fos was down-regulated in the hippocampus, together with a reduction in neurogenesis in the subgranular zone. Taken together, our results suggest that attenuated BDNF release and signaling in the dentate gyrus may account for cognitive and mental deficits sometimes observed after surgery.

The Adaptor Protein CD2AP Is a Coordinator of Neurotrophin Signaling-Mediated Axon Arbor Plasticity

Growth of intact axons of noninjured neurons, often termed collateral sprouting, contributes to both adaptive and pathological plasticity in the adult nervous system, but the intracellular factors controlling this growth are largely unknown. An automated functional assay of genes regulated in sensory neurons from the rat in vivo spared dermatome model of collateral sprouting identified the adaptor protein CD2-associated protein (CD2AP; human CMS) as a positive regulator of axon growth. In non-neuronal cells, CD2AP, like other adaptor proteins, functions to selectively control the spatial/temporal assembly of multiprotein complexes that transmit intracellular signals. Although CD2AP polymorphisms are associated with increased risk of late-onset Alzheimer's disease, its role in axon growth is unknown. Assessments of neurite arbor structure in vitro revealed CD2AP overexpression, and siRNA-mediated knockdown, modulated (1) neurite length, (2) neurite complexity, and (3) growth cone filopodia number, in accordance with CD2AP expression levels. We show, for the first time, that CD2AP forms a novel multiprotein complex with the NGF receptor TrkA and the PI3K regulatory subunit p85, with the degree of TrkA:p85 association positively regulated by CD2AP levels. CD2AP also regulates NGF signaling through AKT, but not ERK, and regulates long-range signaling though TrkA(+)/RAB5(+) signaling endosomes. CD2AP mRNA and protein levels were increased in neurons during collateral sprouting but decreased following injury, suggesting that, although typically considered together, these two adult axonal growth processes are fundamentally different. These data position CD2AP as a major intracellular signaling molecule coordinating NGF signaling to regulate collateral sprouting and structural plasticity of intact adult axons.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Growth of noninjured axons in the adult nervous system contributes to adaptive and maladaptive plasticity, and dysfunction of this process may contribute to neurologic pathologies. Functional screening of genes regulated during growth of noninjured axons revealed CD2AP as a positive regulator of axon outgrowth. A novel association of CD2AP with TrkA and p85 suggests a distinct intracellular signaling pathway regulating growth of noninjured axons. This may also represent a novel mechanism of generating specificity in multifunctional NGF signaling. Divergent regulation of CD2AP in different axon growth conditions suggests that separate mechanisms exist for different modes of axon growth. CD2AP is the first signaling molecule associated with adult sensory axonal collateral sprouting, and this association may offer new insights for NGF/TrkA-related Alzheimer's disease mechanisms.

Cellular reactions of the choroid plexus induced by peripheral nerve injury

The choroid plexus (CP) of brain ventricles forms the blood-cerebrospinal fluid (blood-CSF) barrier that is involved in many diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS). We used ED1 and ED2 immunostaining to investigate epiplexus cell changes in rat CP after chronic constriction injury (CCI). In contrast to naïve CP, the CP of sham-operated rats showed an increase in the number of ED1+ cells of a similar magnitude during all periods of survival up to 3 weeks, while the number of ED2+ increased only at 3 days from operation. In comparison to naïve and sham-operated animals, the number of ED1+ and ED2+ cells in the epiplexus position increased with the duration of nerve compression. We detected no or negligible cell proliferation in the CP after sham- or CCI-operation. This suggests that increased number of ED1+ and ED2+ cells in the epiplexus position of the CP is derived from peripheral monocytes passing through altered blood-CSF barrier. The changes in epiplexus cells indicate that the CP reacts to tissue injury after the surgical approach itself and that the response to peripheral nerve lesion is greater. This suggests a role for an altered blood-CSF barrier allowing for propagation of signal molecules from damaged tissue and nerve to the CNS.

Cutaneous tissue damage induces long-lasting nociceptive sensitization and regulation of cellular stress- and nerve injury-associated genes in sensory neurons

Tissue damage is one of the major etiological factors in the emergence of chronic/persistent pain, although mechanisms remain enigmatic. Using incision of the back skin of adult rats as a model for tissue damage, we observed sensitization in a nociceptive reflex enduring to 28days post-incision (DPI). To determine if the enduring behavioral changes corresponded with a long-term impact of tissue damage on sensory neurons, we examined the temporal expression profile of injury-regulated genes and the electrophysiological properties of traced dorsal root ganglion (DRG) sensory neurons. The mRNA for the injury/stress-hub gene Activating Transcription Factor 3 (ATF3) was upregulated and peaked within 4 DPI, after which levels declined but remained significantly elevated out to 28 DPI, a time when the initial incision appears healed and tissue-inflammation largely resolved. Accordingly, stereological image analysis indicated that some neurons expressed ATF3 only transiently (mostly medium-large neurons), while in others it was sustained (mostly small neurons), suggesting cell-type-specific responses. In retrogradely-traced ATF3-expressing neurons, Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type IV (CAMK4) protein levels and isolectin-B4 (IB4)-binding were suppressed whereas Growth Associated Protein-43 (GAP-43) and Neuropeptide Y (NPY) protein levels were enhanced. Electrophysiological recordings from DiI-traced sensory neurons 28 DPI showed a significant sensitization limited to ATF3-expressing neurons. Thus, ATF3 expression is revealed as a strong predictor of single cells displaying enduring pain-related electrophysiological properties. The cellular injury/stress response induced in sensory neurons by tissue damage and indicated by ATF3 expression is positioned to contribute to pain which can occur after tissue damage.

Transcriptional changes in sensory ganglia associated with primary afferent axon collateral sprouting in spared dermatome model

Primary afferent collateral sprouting is a process whereby non-injured primary afferent neurons respond to some stimulus and extend new branches from existing axons. Neurons of both the central and peripheral nervous systems undergo this process, which contributes to both adaptive and maladaptive plasticity (e.g., [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9]). In the model used here (the “spared dermatome” model), the intact sensory neurons respond to the denervation of adjacent areas of skin by sprouting new axon branches into that adjacent denervated territory. Investigations of gene expression changes associated with collateral sprouting can provide a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms controlling this process. Consequently, it can be used to develop treatments to promote functional recovery for spinal cord injury and other similar conditions. This report includes raw gene expression data files from microarray experiments in order to study the gene regulation in spared sensory ganglia in the initiation (7 days) and maintenance (14 days) phases of the spared dermatome model relative to intact (“naïve”) sensory ganglia. Data has been deposited into GEO (GSE72551).

Physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of galanin peptides and receptors: three decades of emerging diversity

Galanin was first identified 30 years ago as a "classic neuropeptide," with actions primarily as a modulator of neurotransmission in the brain and peripheral nervous system. Other structurally-related peptides-galanin-like peptide and alarin-with diverse biologic actions in brain and other tissues have since been identified, although, unlike galanin, their cognate receptors are currently unknown. Over the last two decades, in addition to many neuronal actions, a number of nonneuronal actions of galanin and other galanin family peptides have been described. These include actions associated with neural stem cells, nonneuronal cells in the brain such as glia, endocrine functions, effects on metabolism, energy homeostasis, and paracrine effects in bone. Substantial new data also indicate an emerging role for galanin in innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer. Galanin has been shown to regulate its numerous physiologic and pathophysiological processes through interactions with three G protein-coupled receptors, GAL1, GAL2, and GAL3, and signaling via multiple transduction pathways, including inhibition of cAMP/PKA (GAL1, GAL3) and stimulation of phospholipase C (GAL2). In this review, we emphasize the importance of novel galanin receptor-specific agonists and antagonists. Also, other approaches, including new transgenic mouse lines (such as a recently characterized GAL3 knockout mouse) represent, in combination with viral-based techniques, critical tools required to better evaluate galanin system physiology. These in turn will help identify potential targets of the galanin/galanin-receptor systems in a diverse range of human diseases, including pain, mood disorders, epilepsy, neurodegenerative conditions, diabetes, and cancer.

The effect of spinal cord injury on the neurochemical properties of vagal sensory neurons

The vagus nerve is composed primarily of nonmyelinated sensory neurons whose cell bodies are located in the nodose ganglion (NG). The vagus has widespread projections that supply most visceral organs, including the bladder. Because of its nonspinal route, the vagus nerve itself is not directly damaged from spinal cord injury (SCI). Because most viscera, including bladder, are dually innervated by spinal and vagal sensory neurons, an impact of SCI on the sensory component of vagal circuitry may contribute to post-SCI visceral pathologies. To determine whether SCI, in male Wistar rats, might impact neurochemical characteristics of NG neurons, immunohistochemical assessments were performed for P2X3 receptor expression, isolectin B4 (IB4) binding, and substance P expression, three known injury-responsive markers in sensory neuronal subpopulations. In addition to examining the overall population of NG neurons, those innervating the urinary bladder also were assessed separately. All three of the molecular markers were represented in the NG from noninjured animals, with the majority of the neurons binding IB4. In the chronically injured rats, there was a significant increase in the number of NG neurons expressing P2X3 and a significant decrease in the number binding IB4 compared with noninjured animals, a finding that held true also for the bladder-innervating population. Overall, these results indicate that vagal afferents, including those innervating the bladder, display neurochemical plasticity post-SCI that may have implications for visceral homeostatic mechanisms and nociceptive signaling.

Axotomy of tributaries of the pelvic and pudendal nerves induces changes in the neurochemistry of mouse dorsal root ganglion neurons and the spinal cord

Using immunohistochemical techniques, we characterized changes in the expression of several neurochemical markers in lumbar 4-sacral 2 (L4-S2) dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neuron profiles (NPs) and the spinal cord of BALB/c mice after axotomy of the L6 and S1 spinal nerves, major tributaries of the pelvic (targeting pelvic visceral organs) and pudendal (targeting perineum and genitalia) nerves. Sham animals were included. Expression of cyclic AMP-dependent transcription factor 3 (ATF3), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V, member 1 (TRPV1), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUT) types 1 and -2 was analysed seven days after injury. L6-S1 axotomy induced dramatic de novo expression of ATF3 in many L6-S1 DRG NPs, and parallel significant downregulations in the percentage of CGRP-, TRPV1-, TH- and VGLUT2-immunoreactive (IR) DRG NPs, as compared to their expression in uninjured DRGs (contralateral L6-S1-AXO; sham mice); VGLUT1 expression remained unaltered. Sham L6-S1 DRGs only showed a small ipsilateral increase in ATF3-IR NPs (other markers were unchanged). L6-S1-AXO induced de novo expression of ATF3 in several lumbosacral spinal cord motoneurons and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons; in sham mice the effect was limited to a few motoneurons. Finally, a moderate decrease in CGRP- and TRPV1-like-immunoreactivities was observed in the ipsilateral superficial dorsal horn neuropil. In conclusion, injury of a mixed visceral/non-visceral nerve leads to considerable neurochemical alterations in DRGs matched, to some extent, in the spinal cord. Changes in these and potentially other nociception-related molecules could contribute to pain due to injury of nerves in the abdominopelvic cavity.

Dendritic spine dysgenesis in neuropathic pain

The failure of neuropathic pain to abate even years after trauma suggests that adverse changes to synaptic function must exist in a chronic pathological state in nociceptive pathways. The chronicity of neuropathic pain therefore underscores the importance of understanding the contribution of dendritic spines--micron-sized postsynaptic structures that represent modifiable sites of synaptic contact. Historically, dendritic spines have been of great interest to the learning and memory field. More recent evidence points to the exciting implication that abnormal dendritic spine structure following disease or injury may represent a "molecular memory" for maintaining chronic pain. Dendritic spine dysgenesis in dorsal horn neurons contributes to nociceptive hyperexcitability associated with neuropathic pain, as demonstrated in multiple pain models, i.e., spinal cord injury, peripheral nerve injury, diabetic neuropathy, and thermal burn injury. Because of the relationship between dendritic spine structure and neuronal function, a thorough investigation of dendritic spine behavior in the spinal cord is a unique opportunity to better understand the mechanisms of sensory dysfunction after injury or disease. At a conceptual level, a spinal memory mechanism that engages dendritic spine remodeling would also contribute to a broad range of intractable neurological conditions. Molecules involved in regulating dendritic spine plasticity may offer novel targets for the development of effective and durable therapies for neurological disease.

Distinct subclassification of DRG neurons innervating the distal colon and glans penis/distal urethra based on the electrophysiological current signature

Spinal sensory neurons innervating visceral and mucocutaneous tissues have unique microanatomic distribution, peripheral modality, and physiological, pharmacological, and biophysical characteristics compared with those neurons that innervate muscle and cutaneous tissues. In previous patch-clamp electrophysiological studies, we have demonstrated that small- and medium-diameter dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons can be subclassified on the basis of their patterns of voltage-activated currents (VAC). These VAC-based subclasses were highly consistent in their action potential characteristics, responses to algesic compounds, immunocytochemical expression patterns, and responses to thermal stimuli. For this study, we examined the VAC of neurons retrogradely traced from the distal colon and the glans penis/distal urethra in the adult male rat. The afferent population from the distal colon contained at least two previously characterized cell types observed in somatic tissues (types 5 and 8), as well as four novel cell types (types 15, 16, 17, and 18). In the glans penis/distal urethra, two previously described cell types (types 6 and 8) and three novel cell types (types 7, 14, and 15) were identified. Other characteristics, including action potential profiles, responses to algesic compounds (acetylcholine, capsaicin, ATP, and pH 5.0 solution), and neurochemistry (expression of substance P, CGRP, neurofilament, TRPV1, TRPV2, and isolectin B4 binding) were consistent for each VAC-defined subgroup. With identification of distinct DRG cell types that innervate the distal colon and glans penis/distal urethra, future in vitro studies related to the gastrointestinal and urogenital sensory function in normal as well as abnormal/pathological conditions may be benefitted.

IB4-binding sensory neurons in the adult rat express a novel 3' UTR-extended isoform of CaMK4 that is associated with its localization to axons

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase 4 (gene and transcript: CaMK4; protein: CaMKIV) is the nuclear effector of the Ca(2+) /calmodulin kinase (CaMK) pathway where it coordinates transcriptional responses. However, CaMKIV is present in the cytoplasm and axons of subpopulations of neurons, including some sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), suggesting an extranuclear role for this protein. We observed that CaMKIV was expressed strongly in the cytoplasm and axons of a subpopulation of small-diameter DRG neurons, most likely cutaneous nociceptors by virtue of their binding the isolectin IB4. In IB4+ spinal nerve axons, 20% of CaMKIV was colocalized with the endocytic marker Rab7 in axons that highly expressed CAM-kinase-kinase (CAMKK), an upstream activator of CaMKIV, suggesting a role for CaMKIV in signaling though signaling endosomes. Using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with riboprobes, we also observed that small-diameter neurons expressed high levels of a novel 3' untranslated region (UTR) variant of CaMK4 mRNA. Using rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE), reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) with gene-specific primers, and cDNA sequencing analyses we determined that the novel transcript contains an additional 10 kb beyond the annotated gene terminus to a highly conserved alternate polyadenylation site. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) analyses of fluorescent-activated cell sorted (FACS) DRG neurons confirmed that this 3'-UTR-extended variant was preferentially expressed in IB4-binding neurons. Computational analyses of the 3'-UTR sequence predict that UTR-extension introduces consensus sites for RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) including the embryonic lethal abnormal vision (ELAV)/Hu family proteins. We consider the possible implications of axonal CaMKIV in the context of the unique properties of IB4-binding DRG neurons.

Spinal gene expression profiling and pathways analysis of a CB2 agonist (MDA7)-targeted prevention of paclitaxel-induced neuropathy

AIMS

Patients receiving paclitaxel often develop peripheral neuropathies. We found that a novel selective cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonist (MDA7) prevents paclitaxel-induced mechanical allodynia in rats and mice. Here we investigated gene expression profiling in the lumbar spinal cord after 14-day treatment of MDA7 in paclitaxel animals and analyzed possible signaling pathways underlying the preventive effect of MDA7 on paclitaxel-induced neuropathy.

METHODS

Peripheral mechanical allodynia was induced in rats or mice receiving intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of paclitaxel at a dose of 1mg/kg daily for four consecutive days. MDA7 was administered at a dose of 15mg/kg 15min before paclitaxel and then continued daily for another 10days. Whole-genome gene expression profiling in the lumbar spinal cord of MDA7 and paclitaxel-treated rats was investigated using microarray analysis. The Ingenuity pathway analysis was performed to determine the potential relevant canonical pathways responsible for the effect of MDA7 on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy.

RESULTS

We observed that the inflammatory molecular networks including tumor necrosis factor (TNF), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ), and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) signaling are most relevant to the preventive effect of MDA7 on paclitaxel-induced peripheral neuropathy. In addition, genes encoding molecules that are important in central sensitization such as glutamate transporters and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor 2B (NMDAR2B), and neuro-immune-related genes such as neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS1), chemokine CX3CL1 (a mediator for microglial activation), toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), and leptin were differentially modulated by MDA7.

CONCLUSION

The preventive effect of MDA7 on paclitaxel-induced peripheral allodynia in rats may be associated with genes involved in signal pathways in central sensitization, microglial activation, and neuroinflammation in the spinal cord.

Dynamic response to peripheral nerve injury detected by in situ hybridization of IL-6 and its receptor mRNAs in the dorsal root ganglia is not strictly correlated with signs of neuropathic pain

Background

IL-6 is a typical injury-induced mediator. Together with its receptors, IL-6 contributes to both induction and maintenance of neuropathic pain deriving from changes in activity of primary sensory neurons in dorsal root ganglia (DRG). We used in situ hybridization to provide evidence of IL-6 and IL-6 receptors (IL-6R and gp130) synthesis in DRG along the neuraxis after unilateral chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve as an experimental model of neuropathic pain.

Results

All rats operated upon to create unilateral CCI displayed mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in ipsilateral hind paws. Contralateral hind paws and forepaws of both sides exhibited only temporal and nonsignificant changes of sensitivity. Very low levels of IL-6 and IL-6R mRNAs were detected in naïve DRG. IL-6 mRNA was bilaterally increased not only in DRG neurons but also in satellite glial cells (SGC) activated by unilateral CCI. In addition to IL-6 mRNA, substantial increase of IL-6R mRNA expression occurred in DRG neurons and SGC following CCI, while the level of gp130 mRNA remained similar to that of DRG from naïve rats.

Conclusions

Here we evidence for the first time increased synthesis of IL-6 and IL-6R in remote cervical DRG nonassociated with the nerve injury. Our results suggest that unilateral CCI of the sciatic nerve induced not only bilateral elevation of IL-6 and IL-6R mRNAs in L4–L5 DRG but also their propagation along the neuraxis to remote cervical DRG as a general neuroinflammatory reaction of the nervous system to local nerve injury without correlation with signs of neuropathic pain. Possible functional involvement of IL-6 signaling is discussed.

Bilateral changes of cannabinoid receptor type 2 protein and mRNA in the dorsal root ganglia of a rat neuropathic pain model

Cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R) plays a critical role in nociception. In contrast to cannabinoid receptor type 1 ligands, CB2R agonists do not produce undesirable central nervous system effects and thus promise to treat neuropathic pain that is often resistant to medical therapy. In the study presented here, we evaluated the bilateral distribution of the CB2R protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) in rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) after unilateral peripheral nerve injury using immunohistochemistry, western blot, and in situ hybridization analysis. Unilateral chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve induced neuropathic pain behavior and bilateral elevation of both CB2R protein and mRNA in lumbar L4-L5 as well as cervical C7-C8 DRG when compared with naive animals. CB2R protein and mRNA were increased not only in DRG neurons but also in satellite glial cells. The fact that changes appear bilaterally and (albeit at a lower level) even in the remote cervical DRG can be related to propagation of neuroinflammation alongside the neuraxis and to the neuroprotective effects of CB2R.

The Transcriptional Response of Neurotrophins and Their Tyrosine Kinase Receptors in Lumbar Sensorimotor Circuits to Spinal Cord Contusion is Affected by Injury Severity and Survival Time

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) results in changes to the anatomical, neurochemical, and physiological properties of cells in the central and peripheral nervous system. Neurotrophins, acting by binding to their cognate Trk receptors on target cell membranes, contribute to modulation of anatomical, neurochemical, and physiological properties of neurons in sensorimotor circuits in both the intact and injured spinal cord. Neurotrophin signaling is associated with many post-SCI changes including maladaptive plasticity leading to pain and autonomic dysreflexia, but also therapeutic approaches such as training-induced locomotor improvement. Here we characterize expression of mRNA for neurotrophins and Trk receptors in lumbar dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and spinal cord after two different severities of mid-thoracic injury and at 6 and 12 weeks post-SCI. There was complex regulation that differed with tissue, injury severity, and survival time, including reversals of regulation between 6 and 12 weeks, and the data suggest that natural regulation of neurotrophins in the spinal cord may continue for months after birth. Our assessments determined that a coordination of gene expression emerged at the 12-week post-SCI time point and bioinformatic analyses address possible mechanisms. These data can inform studies meant to determine the role of the neurotrophin signaling system in post-SCI function and plasticity, and studies using this signaling system as a therapeutic approach.

Activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase in the dorsal root ganglion contributes to pain hypersensitivity after plantar incision

BACKGROUND

The phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) promotes primary afferent sensitization. The role of p38MAPK signaling in the DRG in the pathogenesis of plantar incision hyperalgesia has not been investigated.

RESULTS

Levels of phosphorylated p38MAPK (p-p38MAPK) obviously increased in the DRG after plantar incision. Unmyelinated and myelinated DRG neurons that express p-p38MAPK contained small to medium cell bodies, suggesting that p-p38MAPK expression is induced in neurons with C- and Aδ-fibers. The p-p38MAPK inhibitors FR167653 or SB203580 inhibited incision-induced mechanical hypersensitivity and spontaneous pain behavior. The systemic administration of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) inhibitor prevented subsequent incision-induced activation of p38MAPK in the DRG and alleviated mechanical hypersensitivity after the incision.

CONCLUSIONS

p38MAPK signaling in the DRG plays a crucial role in the development of primary afferent sensitization and pain behavior caused by plantar incision.

A role for NT-3 in the hyperinnervation of neonatally wounded skin

Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) is a target-derived neurotrophic factor that regulates sensory neuronal survival and growth. Here we report that NT-3 plays a critical permissive role in cutaneous sensory nerve sprouting that contributes to pain and sensitivity following skin wounding in young animals. Sensory terminal sprouting in neonatally wounded dermis and epidermis is accompanied by increased NT-3 transcription, NT-3 protein levels, and NT-3 protein release 3-7 days post skin injury in newborn rats and mice. Functional blockade of NT-3 activity with specific antibodies greatly reduces sensory neurite outgrowth induced by wounded skin, but not by naïve skin, in dorsal root ganglion/skin co-cultures. The requirement for NT-3 for sensory terminal sprouting in vivo is confirmed by the absence of wound-induced hyperinnervation in heterozygous transgenic mice (NT-3(+/-)lacZ). We conclude that upregulation of NT-3 in neonatally wounded skin is a critical factor mediating the sensory nerve sprouting that underlies hypersensitivity and pain following skin injury.

Nociceptors as chronic drivers of pain and hyperreflexia after spinal cord injury: an adaptive-maladaptive hyperfunctional state hypothesis

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes chronic peripheral sensitization of nociceptors and persistent generation of spontaneous action potentials (SA) in peripheral branches and the somata of hyperexcitable nociceptors within dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Here it is proposed that SCI triggers in numerous nociceptors a persistent hyperfunctional state (peripheral, synaptic, and somal) that originally evolved as an adaptive response to compensate for loss of sensory terminals after severe but survivable peripheral injury. In this hypothesis, nociceptor somata monitor the status of their own receptive field and the rest of the body by integrating signals received by their peripheral and central branches and the soma itself. A nociceptor switches into a potentially permanent hyperfunctional state when central neural, glial, and inflammatory signal combinations are detected that indicate extensive peripheral injury. Similar signal combinations are produced by SCI and disseminated widely to uninjured as well as injured nociceptors. This paper focuses on the uninjured nociceptors that are altered by SCI. Enhanced activity generated in below-level nociceptors promotes below-level central sensitization, somatic and autonomic hyperreflexia, and visceral dysfunction. If sufficient ascending fibers survive, enhanced activity in below-level nociceptors contributes to below-level pain. Nociceptor activity generated above the injury level contributes to at- and above-level sensitization and pain (evoked and spontaneous). Thus, SCI triggers a potent nociceptor state that may have been adaptive (from an evolutionary perspective) after severe peripheral injury but is maladaptive after SCI. Evidence that hyperfunctional nociceptors make large contributions to behavioral hypersensitivity after SCI suggests that nociceptor-specific ion channels required for nociceptor SA and hypersensitivity offer promising targets for treating chronic pain and hyperreflexia after SCI.

Dose-dependent expression of neuronal injury markers during experimental osteoarthritis induced by monoiodoacetate in the rat

Background

It was recently reported that the mono-iodoacetate (MIA) experimental model of osteoarthritis (OA) courses with changes of neurons innervating the affected joints that are commonly interpreted as a neuronal response to axonal injury. To better characterize these changes, we evaluated the expression of two markers of neuronal damage, ATF-3 and NPY, and the growth associated protein GAP-43, in primary afferent neurons of OA animals injected with three different doses of MIA (0.3, 1 or 2 mg). Measurements were performed at days 3, 7, 14, 21 and 31 post-MIA injection.

Results

OA animals showed the characteristic histopathological changes of the joints and the accompanying nociceptive behaviour, evaluated by the Knee-Bed and CatWalk tests. An increase of ATF-3 expression was detected in the DRG of OA animals as early as 3 days after the injection of 1 or 2 mg of MIA and 7 days after the injection of 0.3 mg. NPY expression was increased in animals injected with 1 or 2 mg of MIA, at day 3 or in all time-points, respectively. From day 7 onwards there was a massive increase of GAP-43 expression in ATF-3 cells.

Conclusions

The expression of the neuronal injury markers ATF-3 and NPY as well as an up-regulation of GAP-43 expression, indicative of peripheral fibre regeneration, suggests that axonal injury and a regeneration response may be happening in this model of OA. This opens new perspectives in the unravelling of the physiopathology of the human disease.

A brief comparison of the pathophysiology of inflammatory versus neuropathic pain

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The causes of inflammatory pain and neuropathic pain are fundamentally different. There are, however, common mechanisms underlying the generation of each pain state. We will discuss some specific elements observed in both tissue and nerve injury pain states and consider the hypothesis that these two states actually demonstrate a convergence over time.

RECENT FINDINGS

The increased pain sensation following tissue and nerve injury results from several mechanisms, including altered ion channel expression in dorsal root ganglion neurons, enhanced dorsal horn glutamate release from primary afferents, enhanced glutamate receptor function in second-order neurons, disinhibition in the dorsal horn and glia cell activation. The role of specific subtypes of receptors, ion channels and glutamate transporters is revealed at peripheral and central sites. Importantly over time, a number of changes, in the dorsal root ganglion and in dorsal horn observed after tissue injury resemble changes observed after nerve injury.

SUMMARY

Recognition of mechanisms common to both inflammatory pain and neuropathic pain might shed light on the understanding of the transition from acute pain to persistent pain.

Spinal cord injury triggers an intrinsic growth-promoting state in nociceptors

Although most investigations of the mechanisms underlying chronic pain after spinal cord injury (SCI) have examined the central nervous system (CNS), recent studies have shown that nociceptive primary afferent neurons display persistent hyperexcitability and spontaneous activity in their peripheral branches and somata in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) after SCI. This suggests that SCI-induced alterations of primary nociceptors contribute to central sensitization and chronic pain after SCI. Does SCI also promote growth of these neurons' fibers, as has been suggested in some reports? The present study tests the hypothesis that SCI induces an intrinsic growth-promoting state in DRG neurons. This was tested by dissociating DRG neurons 3 days or 1 month after spinal contusion injury at thoracic level T10 and measuring neuritic growth 1 day later. Neurons cultured 3 days after SCI exhibited longer neurites without increases in branching ("elongating growth"), compared to neurons from sham-treated or untreated (naïve) rats. Robust promotion of elongating growth was found in small and medium-sized neurons (but not large neurons) from lumbar (L3-L5) and thoracic ganglia immediately above (T9) and below (T10-T11) the contusion site, but not from cervical DRG. Elongating growth was also found in neurons immunoreactive to calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), suggesting that some of the neurons exhibiting enhanced neuritic growth were nociceptors. The same measurements made on neurons dissociated 1 month after SCI revealed no evidence of elongating growth, although evidence for accelerated initiation of neurite outgrowth was found. Under certain conditions this transient growth-promoting state in nociceptors might be important for the development of chronic pain and hyperreflexia after SCI.

Evaluation of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) in a rat model of postoperative pain

Postoperative pain remains a significant problem despite optimal treatment with current pharmaceutical agents. In an effort to provide better postoperative pain control, there is a need to understand the factors that contribute to the development of pain after surgery. Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) is a pleiotropic cytokine released from tissues after injury. We hypothesized that LIF expression in skin, muscle, and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) would increase after plantar incision. The mRNA and protein expression of LIF and LIF receptor (LIF-R) were measured after plantar incision in the rat. Pain behaviors, immunohistochemistry, and C-fiber heat responses to LIF were also studied. LIF expression increased after incision in skin and muscle, and LIF-R was present in large and small DRG neurons. LIF administration to the hindpaw increased pain behaviors, a process that was reversed by anti-LIF. However, LIF and anti-LIF treatment at the time of incision did not augment or ameliorate pain behaviors. LIF treatment activated the second messenger system, JAK-STAT3, in cultured DRG neurons, but failed to alter spontaneous activity or heat responses in C-fiber nociceptors. In conclusion, LIF is not a target for postoperative analgesia; LIF may be important for skin and muscle repair and regeneration after incision.

PERSPECTIVE

This article highlights an incision pain model for the study of factors involved in nociception. The study demonstrates that LIF in is an unlikely target for novel early postoperative analgesics.

Bilateral changes of IL-10 protein in lumbar and cervical dorsal root ganglia following proximal and distal chronic constriction injury of peripheral nerve

Interleukin-10 prevents transition of a physiological inflammatory reaction to a pathological state that may result in neuropathic pain. We studied bilateral changes of IL-10 protein levels in L4-L5 and C7-C8 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) after a chronic constriction injury (CCI) of either L4-L5 spinal nerves (pCCI) or the sciatic nerve (dCCI). Rats undergoing pCCI or dCCI were left to survive for 1, 3, 7 or 14 d, sham-operated rats for 3 or 14 d. After the survival time, C7-C8 and L4-L5 DRG were removed bilaterally from naïve, operated, and sham-operated rats and IL-10 protein was detected by immunohistochemical staining and measured using ELISA analysis. Unilateral pCCI and dCCI induced a transient bilateral elevation in IL-10 protein level not only in the homonymous lumbar DRG but also in the heteronymous cervical DRG nonassociated with the spinal segments of constricted nerve. Sham operations also induced bilateral elevation of IL-10 protein in both homonymous and heteronymous DRG. Our experiments revealed that the more proximal is a nerve injury the more rapid is the initial increase and slower the subsequent decrease of IL-10 protein level in DRG. Changes of IL-10 protein in DRG nonassociated with damaged nerve could be related to a general neuroinflammatory reaction of the nervous system to injury and thereby promote potential of the DRG neurons for regenerating their axons following a conditioning lesion.