Inhibition of carbonic anhydrase augments GABAA receptor-mediated analgesia via a spinal mechanism of action

The Role of Astrocyte-Neuron Lactate Shuttle in Neuropathic Orofacial Pain

BACKGROUND

Inhibition of astrocytic energy metabolism alleviates neuropathic pain.

OBJECTIVES

To explore whether astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle (ANLS) played any role in neuropathic orofacial pain.

METHODS

Rats with partial transection of the right infraorbital nerve (p-IONX) or sham operation were intrathecally injected with acetazolamide (a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor), bithionol (a soluble adenylyl cyclase inhibitor), α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid [α-CHCA, a monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) inhibitor] or vehicle once a day from postoperative day 1-14. The facial mechanical thresholds were tested on preoperative day 1 and 2 and postoperative days 1, 3, 5, 7, 10 and 14, expression of glucose transporters (GLUTs) and MCTs in the trigeminal subnucleus caudalis (Vc) were examined on the postoperative day 3 and neuronal activities in the Vc were examined in the p-IONX rats on postoperative days 3-5.

RESULTS

Compared with the sham group, the mechanical thresholds in the p-IONX group were significantly reduced at postoperative days 1-7, and the number of astrocytes expressing GLUT1 and MCT1/4, and neurons expressing MCT2 was significantly increased on postoperative day 3. In the p-IONX groups, neurons in the Vc were sensitised, and acetazolamide, bithionol and α-CHCA reversed the central sensitisation, significantly increased the mechanical thresholds at postoperative days 1-7 and decreased the number of astrocytes expressing GLUT1 and MCT1/4, and neurons expressing MCT2 at postoperative day 3 compared with those in the vehicle-treated rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Inhibition of ANLS alleviates p-IONX-related neuronal, behavioural and immunohistochemical changes, which suggests that ANLS plays an important role in trigeminal neuropathic pain.

Synthesis, In Vivo Anticonvulsant Activity Evaluation and In Silico Studies of Some Quinazolin-4(3H)-One Derivatives

Two series, "a" and "b", each consisting of nine chemical compounds, with 2,3-disubstituted quinazolin-4(3H)-one scaffold, were synthesized and evaluated for their anticonvulsant activity. They were investigated as dual potential positive allosteric modulators of the GABAA receptor at the benzodiazepine binding site and inhibitors of carbonic anhydrase II. Quinazolin-4(3H)-one derivatives were evaluated in vivo (D1-3 = 50, 100, 150 mg/kg, administered intraperitoneally) using the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure model in mice, with phenobarbital and diazepam, as reference anticonvulsant agents. The in silico studies suggested the compounds act as anticonvulsants by binding on the allosteric site of GABAA receptor and not by inhibiting the carbonic anhydrase II, because the ligands-carbonic anhydrase II predicted complexes were unstable in the molecular dynamics simulations. The mechanism targeting GABAA receptor was confirmed through the in vivo flumazenil antagonism assay. The pentylenetetrazole experimental anticonvulsant model indicated that the tested compounds, 1a-9a and 1b-9b, present a potential anticonvulsant activity. The evaluation, considering the percentage of protection against PTZ, latency until the onset of the first seizure, and reduction in the number of seizures, revealed more favorable results for the "b" series, particularly for compound 8b.

4-Cyanamido-substituted benzenesulfonamides act as dual carbonic anhydrase and cathepsin inhibitors

A set of novel N-cyano-N-substituted 4-aminobenzenesulfonamide derivatives were synthesized and investigated for their inhibitory activity against four cytosolic carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) isoforms (hCA I, II, VII and XIII) and two cathepsins (S and B). N-alkyl/benzyl-substituted derivatives were revealed to be very potent inhibitors against brain-associated hCA VII, but inactive against both cathepsins. On the other hand, N-acyl-substituted derivatives displayed significant inhibitory activities against cathepsin S, but only moderate to poor inhibitory potency against hCA VII. Both hCA VII and cathepsin S have recently been validated as therapeutic targets in neuropathic pain. This study provided an excellent starting point for further structural optimization of this class of bifunctional compounds to enhance their inhibitory activity and selectivity against hCA VII and cathepsin S and to achieve new compounds with an attractive dual mechanism of action as anti-neuropathic agents.

A simple yet multifaceted 90 years old, evergreen enzyme: Carbonic anhydrase, its inhibition and activation

Advances in the carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) research over the last three decades are presented, with an emphasis on the deciphering of the activation mechanism, the development of isoform-selective inhibitors/ activators by the tail approach and their applications in the management of obesity, hypoxic tumors, neurological conditions, and as antiinfectives.

First-in-Class Dual Hybrid Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors and Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 Agonists Revert Oxaliplatin-Induced Neuropathy

Here, we report for the first time a series of compounds potentially useful for the management of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy (OINP) able to modulate the human Carbonic Anhydrases (hCAs) as well as the Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1). All compounds showed effective in vitro inhibition activity toward the main hCAs involved in such a pathology, whereas selected items reported moderate agonism of TRPV1. X-ray crystallographic experiments assessed the binding modes of the two enantiomers (R)-37a and (S)-37b within the hCA II cleft. Although the tails assumed diverse orientations, no appreciable effects were observed for their hCA II affinity. Similarly, the activity of (R)-39a and (S)-39b on TRPV1 was not influenced by the stereocenters. In vivo evaluation of the most promising derivatives (R)-12a, (R)-37a, and the two enantiomers (R)-39a, (S)-39b revealed antihypersensitivity effects in a mouse model of OINP with potent and persistent effect up to 75 min after administration.

Hypoxia-induced carbonic anhydrase mediated dorsal horn neuron activation and induction of neuropathic pain

ABSTRACT

Neuropathic pain, such as that seen in diabetes mellitus, results in part from central sensitisation in the dorsal horn. However, the mechanisms responsible for such sensitisation remain unclear. There is evidence that disturbances in the integrity of the spinal vascular network can be causative factors in the development of neuropathic pain. Here we show that reduced blood flow and vascularity of the dorsal horn leads to the onset of neuropathic pain. Using rodent models (type 1 diabetes and an inducible endothelial-specific vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 knockout mouse) that result in degeneration of the endothelium in the dorsal horn, we show that spinal cord vasculopathy results in nociceptive behavioural hypersensitivity. This also results in increased hypoxia in dorsal horn neurons, depicted by increased expression of hypoxia markers such as hypoxia inducible factor 1α, glucose transporter 3, and carbonic anhydrase 7. Furthermore, inducing hypoxia through intrathecal delivery of dimethyloxalylglycine leads to the activation of dorsal horn neurons as well as mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity. This shows that hypoxic signalling induced by reduced vascularity results in increased hypersensitivity and pain. Inhibition of carbonic anhydrase activity, through intraperitoneal injection of acetazolamide, inhibited hypoxia-induced pain behaviours. This investigation demonstrates that induction of a hypoxic microenvironment in the dorsal horn, as occurs in diabetes, is an integral process by which neurons are activated to initiate neuropathic pain states. This leads to the conjecture that reversing hypoxia by improving spinal cord microvascular blood flow could reverse or prevent neuropathic pain.

Carbonic Anhydrases in Metazoan Model Organisms: Molecules, Mechanisms, and Physiology

During the past three decades, mice, zebrafish, fruit flies, and Caenorhabditis elegans have been the primary model organisms used for the study of various biological phenomena. These models have also been adopted and developed to investigate the physiological roles of carbonic anhydrases (CAs) and carbonic anhydrase-related proteins (CARPs). These proteins belong to eight CA families and are identified by Greek letters: α, β, γ, δ, ζ, η, θ, and ι. Studies using model organisms have focused on two CA families, α-CAs and β-CAs, which are expressed in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms with species-specific distribution patterns and unique functions. This review covers the biological roles of CAs and CARPs in light of investigations performed in model organisms. Functional studies demonstrate that CAs are not only linked to the regulation of pH homeostasis, the classical role of CAs but also contribute to a plethora of previously undescribed functions.

Carbonic Anhydrase IV Selective Inhibitors Counteract the Development of Colitis-Associated Visceral Pain in Rats

Persistent pain affecting patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) is still very difficult to treat. Carbonic anhydrase (CA) represents an intriguing pharmacological target considering the anti-hyperalgesic efficacy displayed by CA inhibitors in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain models. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of inhibiting CA IV, particularly when expressed in the gut, on visceral pain associated with colitis induced by 2,4-di-nitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS) in rats. Visceral sensitivity was assessed by measuring animals' abdominal responses to colorectal distension. Repeated treatment with the selective CA IV inhibitors AB-118 and NIK-67 effectively counteracted the development of visceral pain induced by DNBS. In addition to pain relief, AB-118 showed a protective effect against colon damage. By contrast, the anti-hyperalgesic activity of NIK-67 was independent of colon healing, suggesting a direct protective effect of NIK-67 on visceral sensitivity. The enzymatic activity and the expression of CA IV resulted significantly increased after DNBS injection. NIK-67 normalised CA IV activity in DNBS animals, while AB-118 was partially effective. None of these compounds influenced CA IV expression through the colon. Although further investigations are needed to study the underlying mechanisms, CA IV inhibitors are promising candidates in the search for therapies to relieve visceral pain in IBDs.

Pharmacological Modulation of Rate-Dependent Depression of the Spinal H-Reflex Predicts Therapeutic Efficacy against Painful Diabetic Neuropathy

Impaired rate-dependent depression (RDD) of the spinal H-reflex occurs in diabetic rodents and a sub-set of patients with painful diabetic neuropathy. RDD is unaffected in animal models of painful neuropathy associated with peripheral pain mechanisms and diabetic patients with painless neuropathy, suggesting RDD could serve as a biomarker for individuals in whom spinal disinhibition contributes to painful neuropathy and help identify therapies that target impaired spinal inhibitory function. The spinal pharmacology of RDD was investigated in normal rats and rats after 4 and 8 weeks of streptozotocin-induced diabetes. In normal rats, dependence of RDD on spinal GABAergic inhibitory function encompassed both GABA_A and GABA_B receptor sub-types. The time-dependent emergence of impaired RDD in diabetic rats was preceded by depletion of potassium-chloride co-transporter 2 (KCC2) protein in the dorsal, but not ventral, spinal cord and by dysfunction of GABA_A receptor-mediated inhibition. GABA_B receptor-mediated spinal inhibition remained functional and initially compensated for loss of GABA_A receptor-mediated inhibition. Administration of the GABA_B receptor agonist baclofen restored RDD and alleviated indices of neuropathic pain in diabetic rats, as did spinal delivery of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor acetazolamide. Pharmacological manipulation of RDD can be used to identify potential therapies that act against neuropathic pain arising from spinal disinhibition.

The crystal structures of 2-(4-benzhydrylpiperazin-1-yl)-N-(4-sulfamoylphenyl)acetamide in complex with human carbonic anhydrase II and VII provide insights into selective CA inhibitor development

Our studies suggest that the acetamide linker and long tails are suitable structural features to design selective CA inhibitors.

Analgesic and Antiallodynic Effects of 4-Fluoro-N-(4-Sulfamoylbenzyl) Benzene Sulfonamide in a Murine Model of Pain

INTRODUCTION

Physical, chemical, thermal injuries along with infectious diseases lead to acute pain with associated inflammation, being the primary cause of hospital visits. Moreover, neuropathic pain associated with diabetes is a serious chronic disease leading to high morbidity and poor quality of life.

OBJECTIVE

Earlier multiple sulphonamides have been reported to have an antinociceptive and antiallodynic profile. 4-Fluoro-N-(4-sulfamoylbenzyl) Benzene Sulfonamide (4-FBS), a synthetic sulfonamide with reported carbonic anhydrase inhibitory activity, was investigated for its potential effects in mice model of acute and diabetic neuropathic pain.

METHODS AND RESULTS

4-FBS was given orally (p.o.) one hour before the test and then mice were screened for antinociceptive activity by using the tail immersion test, which showed significant antinociceptive effect at both 20 and 40 mg/kg doses. To explore the possible mechanisms, thermal analgesia of 4-FBS was reversed by the 5HT3 antagonist ondansetron 1mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.) and by the µ receptor antagonist naloxone (1 mg/kg i.p.), implying possible involvement of serotonergic and opioidergic pathways in the analgesic effect of 4-FBS. Diabetes was induced in mice by a single dose of streptozotocin (STZ) 200 mg/kg i.p. After two weeks, animals first became hyperalgesic and progressively allodynic in the fourth week, which was evaluated through behavioral parameters like thermal and mechanical tests. 4-FBS at 20 and 40 mg/kg p.o. significantly reversed diabetes-induced hyperalgesia and allodynia at 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes.

CONCLUSION

These findings are significant and promising while further studies are warranted to explore the exact molecular mechanism and the potential of 4-FBS in diabetic neuropathic pain.

Effect of 4-Fluoro-N-(4-Sulfamoylbenzyl) Benzene Sulfonamide on Acquisition and Expression of Nicotine-Induced Behavioral Sensitization and Striatal Adenosine Levels

Introduction

Behavioral sensitization is a phenomenon that develops from intermittent exposure to nicotine and other psychostimulants, which often leads to heightened locomotor activity and then relapse. Sulfonamides that act as carbonic anhydrase inhibitors have a documented role in enhancing dopaminergic tone and normalizing neuroplasticity by stabilizing glutamate release.

Objective

The aim of the current study was to explore synthetic sulfonamides derivative 4-fluoro-N-(4-sulfamoylbenzyl) benzene-sulfonamide (4-FBS) (with documented carbonic anhydrase inhibitory activity) on acquisition and expression of nicotine-induced behavioral sensitization.

Methods

In the acquisition phase, selected 5 groups of mice were exposed to saline or nicotine 0.5mg/kg intraperitoneal (i.p) for 7 consecutive days. Selected 3 groups were administered with 4-FBS 20, 40, and 60 mg/kg p.o. along with nicotine. After 3 days of the drug-free period, ie, day 11, a challenge dose of nicotine was injected to all groups except saline and locomotor activity was recorded for 30 minutes. In the expression phase, mice were exposed to saline and nicotine only 0.5 mg/kg i.p for 7 consecutive days. After 3 days of the drug-free period, ie, day 11, 4-FBS at 20, 40, and 60 mg/kg were administered to the selected groups, one hour after drug a nicotine challenge dose was administered, and locomotion was recorded. At the end of behavioral experiments, all animals were decapitated and the striatum was excised and screened for changes in adenosine levels, using HPLC-UV.

Results

Taken together, our findings showed that 4-FBS in all 3 doses, in both sets of experiments significantly attenuated nicotine-induced behavioral sensitization in mice. Additionally, 4-FBS at 60mg/kg significantly lowered the adenosine level in the striatum.

Conclusion

The behavioral and adenosine modulation is promising, and more receptors level studies are warranted to explore the exact mechanism of action of 4-FBS.

Progress in the development of human carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and their pharmacological applications: Where are we today?

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) are widely distributed metalloenzymes in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. They efficiently catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate and H⁺  ions and play a crucial role in regulating many physiological processes. CAs are well-studied drug target for various disorders such as glaucoma, epilepsy, sleep apnea, and high altitude sickness. In the past decades, a large category of diverse families of CA inhibitors (CAIs) have been developed and many of them showed effective inhibition toward specific isoforms, and effectiveness in pathological conditions in preclinical and clinical settings. The discovery of isoform-selective CAIs in the last decade led to diminished side effects associated with off-target isoforms inhibition. The many new classes of such compounds will be discussed in the review, together with strategies for their development. Pharmacological advances of the newly emerged CAIs in diseases not usually associated with CA inhibition (neuropathic pain, arthritis, cerebral ischemia, and cancer) will also be discussed.

Phenyl(thio)phosphon(amid)ate Benzenesulfonamides as Potent and Selective Inhibitors of Human Carbonic Anhydrases II and VII Counteract Allodynia in a Mouse Model of Oxaliplatin-Induced Neuropathy

Human carbonic anhydrase (CA; EC 4.2.1.1) isoforms II and VII are implicated in neuronal excitation, seizures, and neuropathic pain (NP). Their selective inhibition over off-target CAs is expected to produce an anti-NP action devoid of side effects due to promiscuous CA modulation. Here, a drug design strategy based on the observation of (dis)similarities between the target CA active sites was planned with benzenesulfonamide derivatives and, for the first time, a phosphorus-based linker. Potent and selective CA II/VII inhibitors were identified among the synthesized phenyl(thio)phosphon(amid)ates 3-22. X-ray crystallography depicted the binding mode of phosphonic acid 3 to both CAs II and VII. The most promising derivatives, after evaluation of their stability in acidic media, were tested in a mouse model of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathy. The most potent compound racemic mixture was subjected to HPLC enantioseparation, and the identification of the eutomer, the (S)-enantiomer, allowed to halve the dose totally relieving allodynia in mice.

Exploring the multiple binding modes of inhibitors to carbonic anhydrases for novel drug discovery

INTRODUCTION

The spacious active site cavity of the metalloenzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) shows a great versatility for a variety of binding modes for modulators of activity, inhibitors, and activators, some of which are clinically used drugs.

AREAS COVERED

There are at least four well-documented CA inhibition mechanisms and the same number of binding modes for CA inhibitors (CAIs), one of which superposes with the binding of activators (CAAs). They include (i) coordination to the catalytic metal ion; (ii) anchoring to the water molecule coordinated to the metal ion; (iii) occlusion of the active site entrance; and (iv) binding outside the active site. A large number of chemical classes of CAIs show these binding modes explored in detail by kinetic, crystallographic, and other techniques. The tail approach was applied to all of them and allowed many classes of highly isoform-selective inhibitors. This is the subject of our review.

EXPERT OPINION

All active site regions of CAs accommodate inhibitors to bind, which is reflected in very different inhibition profiles for such compounds and the possibility to design drugs with effective action and new applications, such as for the management of hypoxic tumors, neuropathic pain, cerebral ischemia, arthritis, and degenerative disorders.

Spirocyclic sulfonamides with carbonic anhydrase inhibitory and anti-neuropathic pain activity

A novel series of 4-oxo-spirochromane bearing primary sulfonamide group were synthetized as Carbonic Anhydrase inhibitors (CAIs) and tested for their management of neuropathic pain. Indeed, CAs have been recently validated as novel therapeutic targets in neuropathic pain. All compounds, here reported, showed strong activity against hCA II and hCA VII with K_I values in the low or sub-nanomolar range. Two compounds (6d and 6l) showed good neuropathic pain attenuating effects and longer duration than drug reference acetazolamide in an animal model of oxaliplatin induced neuropathy.

N-aryl-N'-ureido-O-sulfamates: Potent and selective inhibitors of the human Carbonic Anhydrase VII isoform with neuropathic pain relieving properties

Herein we report for the first time an efficient synthetic procedure for the preparation of N-aryl-N'-ureido-O-sulfamates (AUSs) as a new class of Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors (CAIs). The compounds were tested for the inhibition of several human (h) Carbonic Anhydrase (CA; EC 4.2.1.1) isoforms. Interesting inhibition activity and high selectivity against CA VII and XII versus CA I and II, with K_Is in the low nanomolar range, were observed. Molecular modeling studies allowed us to decipher the structural features underpinning the selective inhibitory profile of AUSs towards isoforms CAs VII and XII. A selection of sulfamates showed promising neuropathic pain modulating effects in an in vivo animal model of oxaliplatin induced pain.

Neuropathic Pain After Spinal Cord Injury: Challenges and Research Perspectives

Neuropathic pain is a debilitating consequence of spinal cord injury (SCI) that remains difficult to treat because underlying mechanisms are not yet fully understood. In part, this is due to limitations of evaluating neuropathic pain in animal models in general, and SCI rodents in particular. Though pain in patients is primarily spontaneous, with relatively few patients experiencing evoked pains, animal models of SCI pain have primarily relied upon evoked withdrawals. Greater use of operant tasks for evaluation of the affective dimension of pain in rodents is needed, but these tests have their own limitations such that additional studies of the relationship between evoked withdrawals and operant outcomes are recommended. In preclinical SCI models, enhanced reflex withdrawal or pain responses can arise from pathological changes that occur at any point along the sensory neuraxis. Use of quantitative sensory testing for identification of optimal treatment approach may yield improved identification of treatment options and clinical trial design. Additionally, a better understanding of the differences between mechanisms contributing to at- versus below-level neuropathic pain and neuropathic pain versus spasticity may shed insights into novel treatment options. Finally, the role of patient characteristics such as age and sex in pathogenesis of neuropathic SCI pain remains to be addressed.

Neuroligin 2 regulates spinal GABAergic plasticity in hyperalgesic priming, a model of the transition from acute to chronic pain

Plasticity in inhibitory receptors, neurotransmission, and networks is an important mechanism for nociceptive signal amplification in the spinal dorsal horn. We studied potential changes in GABAergic pharmacology and its underlying mechanisms in hyperalgesic priming, a model of the transition from acute to chronic pain. We find that while GABAA agonists and positive allosteric modulators reduce mechanical hypersensitivity to an acute insult, they fail to do so during the maintenance phase of hyperalgesic priming. In contrast, GABAA antagonism promotes antinociception and a reduction in facial grimacing after the transition to a chronic pain state. During the maintenance phase of hyperalgesic priming, we observed increased neuroligin (nlgn) 2 expression in the spinal dorsal horn. This protein increase was associated with an increase in nlgn2A splice variant mRNA, which promotes inhibitory synaptogenesis. Disruption of nlgn2 function with the peptide inhibitor, neurolide 2, produced mechanical hypersensitivity in naive mice but reversed hyperalgesic priming in mice previously exposed to brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Neurolide 2 treatment also reverses the change in polarity in GABAergic pharmacology observed in the maintenance of hyperalgesic priming. We propose that increased nlgn2 expression is associated with hyperalgesic priming where it promotes dysregulation of inhibitory networks. Our observations reveal new mechanisms involved in the spinal maintenance of a pain plasticity and further suggest that disinhibitory mechanisms are central features of neuroplasticity in the spinal dorsal horn.

Carbonic anhydrase inhibition and the management of neuropathic pain

INTRODUCTION

Neuropathic pain affects up to 8% of the population with few therapeutic options for its management. No specific drugs are approved for its treatment.

AREAS COVERED

Recent advances in understanding the pathological mechanisms of this syndrome and the biochemical/pharmacological characterization of novel drug targets, evidenced carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) inhibition as a new approach for designing antineuropathic pain agents. Expert commentary: Peripheral nerve injury negatively influences spinal γ-aminobutyric (GABA)-ergic networks via a reduction in the neuron-specific potassium-chloride (K(+)-Cl(-)) cotransporter (KCC2), which leads to neuropathic allodynia. CA inhibitors (CAIs) reduce the bicarbonate-dependent depolarization of GABAA receptors, showing analgesic effects. Novel classes of selective sulfonamide CA II/VII inhibitors showed highly improved efficacy in animal models of neuropathic pain, compared to acetazolamide, offering the basis for the development of specific therapies of this syndrome based on selective CA isoforms inhibition.

Chloride dysregulation and inhibitory receptor blockade yield equivalent disinhibition of spinal neurons yet are differentially reversed by carbonic anhydrase blockade

Synaptic inhibition plays a key role in processing somatosensory information. Blocking inhibition at the spinal level is sufficient to produce mechanical allodynia, and many neuropathic pain conditions are associated with reduced inhibition. Disinhibition of spinal neurons can arise through decreased GABAA/glycine receptor activation or through dysregulation of intracellular chloride. We hypothesized that these distinct disinhibitory mechanisms, despite all causing allodynia, are differentially susceptible to therapeutic intervention. Specifically, we predicted that reducing bicarbonate efflux by blocking carbonic anhydrase with acetazolamide (ACTZ) would counteract disinhibition caused by chloride dysregulation without affecting normal inhibition or disinhibition caused by GABAA/glycine receptor blockade. To test this, responses to innocuous tactile stimulation were recorded in vivo from rat superficial dorsal horn neurons before and after different forms of pharmacological disinhibition and again after application of ACTZ. Blocking GABAA or glycine receptors caused hyperresponsiveness equivalent to that caused by blocking the potassium chloride cotransporter KCC2, but, consistent with our predictions, only disinhibition caused by KCC2 blockade was counteracted by ACTZ. ACTZ did not alter responses of neurons with intact inhibition. As pathological downregulation of KCC2 is triggered by brain-derived neurotrophic factor, we also confirmed that ACTZ was effective against brain-derived neurotrophic factor-induced hyperresponsiveness. Our results argue that intrathecal ACTZ has antiallodynic effects only if allodynia arises through chloride dysregulation; therefore, behavioral evidence that ACTZ is antiallodynic in nerve-injured animals affirms the contribution of chloride dysregulation as a key pathological mechanism. Although different disinhibitory mechanisms are not mutually exclusive, these results demonstrate that their relative contribution dictates which specific therapies will be effective.

Acetazolamide reduces postoperative pain following laparoscopic inguinal herniorrhaphy

BACKGROUND

Carbonic acid accumulation, which results from CO2 insufflation, can produce visceral and referred pain in the postoperative setting. Acetazolamide inhibits carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that accelerates carbonic acid formation. We hypothesized that preoperative administration of acetazolamide would decrease postoperative pain in patients undergoing laparoscopic inguinal herniorrhaphy.

METHODS

A retrospective review was conducted of patients who underwent laparoscopic preperitoneal inguinal herniorrhaphy at the Medical College of Wisconsin between October 2012 and September 2014. Beginning in January 2014, patients began receiving 250 mg of acetazolamide preoperatively; patients prior to that time did not. The visual analog scale (range 0-10) was used to assess both preoperative pain and postoperative pain.

RESULTS

A total of 66 patients underwent laparoscopic inguinal herniorrhaphy during the study interval. Of these, 22 (33 %) patients received acetazolamide preoperatively, and 44 (67 %) were included as controls. Overall mean pain scores were lower in the acetazolamide group (1.9 ± 1.45 vs 2.9 ± 1.5, p = 0.04). Specifically, patients who received acetazolamide reported lower pain scores immediately after surgery (0.6 ± 1.2 vs 1.9 ± 2.3, p = 0.01) and on post-op day one (2.3 ± 0.9 vs 4.0 ± 2.1, p = 0.04). Total morphine equivalents administered to manage postoperative pain were significantly less for the acetazolamide group (4.3 ± 4.8 mg) when compared to the control group (8.9 ± 8.4 mg), p = 0.04. Perioperative complications did not differ between the groups (p = 0.16).

CONCLUSIONS

Acetazolamide appears to reduce pain in the immediate postoperative setting. Patients who received acetazolamide had lower pain scores postoperatively and required fewer narcotics for pain management prior to discharge.

A class of sulfonamide carbonic anhydrase inhibitors with neuropathic pain modulating effects

A series of benzene sulfonamide carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) inhibitors which incorporate lipophilic 4-alkoxy- and 4-aryloxy moieties, together with several derivatives of ethoxzolamide and sulfanilamide are reported. These derivatives were investigated as inhibitors of the metalloenzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) of which multiple isoforms are known, and some appear to be involved in pain. These sulfonamides showed modest inhibition against the cytosolic isoform CA I, but were generally effective, low nanomolar CA II, VII, IX and XII inhibitors. X-ray crystallographic data for the adduct of several such sulfonamides with CA II allowed us to rationalize the good inhibition data. In a mice model of neuropathic pain induced by oxaliplatin, one of the strong CA II/VII inhibitors reported here induced a long lasting pain relieving effect, a fact never observed earlier. This is the first report of rationally designed sulfonamide CA inhibitors with pain effective modulating effects.

Cation-chloride cotransporters in neuronal development, plasticity and disease

Electrical activity in neurons requires a seamless functional coupling between plasmalemmal ion channels and ion transporters. Although ion channels have been studied intensively for several decades, research on ion transporters is in its infancy. In recent years, it has become evident that one family of ion transporters, cation-chloride cotransporters (CCCs), and in particular K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter 2 (KCC2), have seminal roles in shaping GABAergic signalling and neuronal connectivity. Studying the functions of these transporters may lead to major paradigm shifts in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying brain development and plasticity in health and disease.