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Świątek S, Czyrski A. Analytical Methods for Determining Psychoactive Substances in Various Matrices: A Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2024:1-27. [PMID: 39155524 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2024.2388123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances pose significant challenges and dangers to society due to their impact on perception, mood, and behavior, leading to health and life disturbances. The consumption of these substances is largely influenced by their legal status, cultural norms, and religious beliefs. Continuous development and chemical modifications of psychoactive substances complicate their control, detection, and determination in the human body. This paper addresses the terminological distinctions between psychoactive and psychotropic substances and drugs. It provides a comprehensive review of analytical methods used to identify and quantify 25 psychoactive substances in various biological matrices, including blood, urine, saliva, hair, and nails. The analysis categorizes these substances into four primary groups: stimulants, neuroleptics, depressants, and hallucinogens. The study specifically focuses on chromatographic and spectrophotometric methods, as well as other novel analytical techniques. Methodology includes a review of scientific articles containing validation studies of these methods and innovative approaches to psychoactive substance determination. Articles were sourced from the PubMed database, with most research originating from the twenty first century. The paper discusses the limits of detection and quantitation for each method, along with current trends and challenges in the analytical determination of evolving psychoactive substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szymon Świątek
- Department of Physical Pharmacy and Pharmacokinetics, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland
- Doctoral School of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Geographical and Geological Sciences, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poznań, Poland
| | - Andrzej Czyrski
- Department of Physical Pharmacy and Pharmacokinetics, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Poznań, Poland
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Kuwayama K, Miyaguchi H, Kanamori T, Tsujikawa K, Yamamuro T, Segawa H, Okada Y, Iwata YT. Development of a method to evaluate the effects of external environments on drug stability in nails using micro-segmental analysis. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38631699 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Nails can be used as an alternative to hair for examining past drug use. However, daily hand-and-nail care can eliminate the internal drugs. Therefore, we developed an evaluation method to examine the effects of the external environment on drug stability in nails using micro-segmental analysis. First, reference nails containing drugs were prepared by collecting fingernails from participants who had consumed hay-fever medicines continuously for 4 months. Next, the entire free edge of a reference nail was cut into halves at the centerline; one side was stored as an untreated block, and the other was treated with various hand/nail care products. Both nail blocks were washed and segmented at 0.5-mm intervals in the width direction. Each segment in the extraction solution was crushed with stainless-steel beads, sonicated, and soaked in the solution for 24 h. The analytes in extracts were quantified by LC-MS/MS, and the drug concentrations between the treated and untreated blocks were compared. The drug concentrations decreased slightly in nails treated with manicure and gel-nail products. The analytes in nails tended to be lower in water-rich products such as hand soap and hand cream than in oil-rich products such as nailcare oil and acetone-free remover. The developed method using micro-segmental analysis enabled the evaluation of the effects of various hand/nail care products on drug stability in a limited number of nails. This would also be useful for examining the effects of severe environments on drugs in nails collected from cases of unnatural death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Kuwayama
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Chiba, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | - Hiroki Segawa
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yuki Okada
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yuko T Iwata
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Chiba, Japan
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Yafout M, Aït Mouss R, Bouchafra H, Zarayby L, Sbai El-Otmani I. Overview of the bioanalytical methods used for the determination of benzodiazepines in biological samples and their suitability for emergency toxicological analysis. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2023; 123:107294. [PMID: 37468080 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2023.107294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Benzodiazepines are one of the most widely used classes of drugs around the world. They are medically used in different therapeutic areas including insomnia, anxiety, epilepsy, and anesthesia. Unfortunately, these drugs are very widespread in the illicit market for recreational purposes and cause drug dependence, traffic accidents, and criminality. Furthermore, benzodiazepine misuse leads to acute poisoning cases that often end up in hospital emergency rooms. Therefore, it is crucial for hospitals to possess straightforward and efficient bioanalytical techniques that enable the swift detection of benzodiazepines in biological samples. This review provides a general overview of the different bioanalytical techniques used for the detection and quantification of benzodiazepines in biological samples and emphasizes their suitability for emergency toxicological analyzes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Yafout
- Laboratory of drug sciences, biomedical research, and biotechnology. Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco.
| | - Rachid Aït Mouss
- Laboratory of drug sciences, biomedical research, and biotechnology. Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Houda Bouchafra
- Laboratory of drug sciences, biomedical research, and biotechnology. Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Lhoussaine Zarayby
- Laboratory of drug sciences, biomedical research, and biotechnology. Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Ibrahim Sbai El-Otmani
- Laboratory of drug sciences, biomedical research, and biotechnology. Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Morocco
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Hill VA, Schaffer MI, Paulsen RB, Stowe GN. Identifying contamination versus ingestion in hair testing, with cocaine as example. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1557-1564. [PMID: 35701178 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
When developing a procedure to identify external contamination of hair as opposed to drug that is in hair from ingestion, there are components of the process that must be considered in the final method. A method that does not achieve the objective may be missing one or more of these elements: choice of solvent, a drug-binding agent, ratio of solvent to hair, temperature, time, intactness of the hair, and establishing, for the chosen method, a criterion based on the drug contents of the wash and hair that indicates the hair may be contaminated.
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Cobo-Golpe M, de-Castro-Ríos A, Cruz A, Páramo M, López-Rivadulla M, Lendoiro E. Determination of antidepressants and benzodiazepines in paired hair and nail samples. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 326:110935. [PMID: 34333195 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Hair and nails are keratinized matrices that can be used in Toxicology as matrices for the long-term detection of substances. Whereas hair is an established matrix with decades of use in this field, nails have been less studied, especially including a comparison to hair samples. Specifically in the case of antidepressant and benzodiazepine drugs, very few publications analyzing these drugs in nail samples exist as of yet. For this reason, in the present study a method for the detection of 12 antidepressant and benzodiazepine drugs in hair and nail samples was developed. Samples were decontaminated with 3 washes of dichloromethane, and 25 or 30 mg of hair and nails, respectively, were pulverized. Then, the samples were incubated with 1.5 mL water:ACN (50:50, v/v) with horizontal agitation for 90 min. The supernatant was evaporated and reconstituted in 200 µL of methanol and 2 mL of 2% FA in water, submitted to solid phase extraction (SPE) using Oasis MCX cartridges and analyzed by LC-MS/MS. The method was satisfactorily validated in nail and hair samples for the following parameters: linearity, LOD (0.005-0.02 ng/mg), LOQ (0.01-0.02 ng/mg), selectivity, carryover, accuracy, imprecision, matrix effect, extraction efficiency, process efficiency and autosampler stability. Matched fingernail, toenail and hair samples were obtained from 21 patients under treatment with any of the studied drugs and analyzed with the developed method. The most frequently detected drugs were venlafaxine (n = 11), trazodone (n = 6), zolpidem (n = 5), alprazolam (n = 5) and nordiazepam (n = 5). Concentrations in hair, fingernails and toenails, respectively, were 44.31 ng/mg, 8.05-43.35 ng/mg and 7.02-22.69 ng/mg for venlafaxine; 5.40-19.08 ng/mg, 0.13-1.00 ng/mg and 0.42-1.04 ng/mg for trazodone; 13.86 ng/mg, 5.19 ng/mg and 9.11 ng/mg for fluoxetine; 7.42 ng/mg, 1.85 ng/mg and 0.03-2.81 ng/mg for sertraline; 0.40-1.42 ng/mg, 0.12 ng/mg and 0.16 ng/mg for zolpidem; and 0.02-0.11 ng/mg, 0.07-1.07 ng/mg and 0.05 ng/mg for alprazolam for the patients under active treatment. Hair concentrations were higher than nail concentrations for most drugs in patients under active treatment, with the exception of diazepam (n = 1; 0.12 ng/mg in hair and 0.41 ng/mg in fingernails). Fingernail concentrations were lower than toenail concentrations in patients under active treatment in most compared cases. Comparison of fingernails and toenails of a patient with antifungal treatment did not show an observable effect in concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Cobo-Golpe
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Ana de-Castro-Ríos
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Angelines Cruz
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Mario Páramo
- Servizo de Psiquiatría, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago (CHUS), Servizo Galego de Saúde (SERGAS), Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Manuel López-Rivadulla
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Elena Lendoiro
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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Cobo-Golpe M, de-Castro-Ríos A, Cruz A, López-Rivadulla M, Lendoiro E. Determination and Distribution of Cannabinoids in Nail and Hair Samples. J Anal Toxicol 2020; 45:969-975. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkaa164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Hair has been used for decades in toxicology as a biological matrix for long-term detection of substances. Nails are another keratinized matrix that is being studied as an alternative when hair cannot be obtained. Although cannabis is the most prevalent illicit drug in the world, cannabinoid distribution in nails compared with hair has been scarcely studied. In this work, we described two methods for the determination of cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and main metabolites of THC [11-nor-9-carboxy-THC (THCCOOH), 11-hydroxy-THC (OHTHC) and 8-β-11-dihydroxyTHC (diOHTHC)] in nail and hair samples. After an alkaline hydrolysis, samples were submitted to solid-phase extraction and analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS-MS). The methods were fully validated, with good linearity (r2 > 0.99) in the range of 20 to 100 to 20,000 pg/mg. No endogenous or exogenous interferences were found. Accuracy was from 99.5% to 109.8%, and imprecision was <6.9%. Ion suppression (up to −74.4%) was observed for all the analytes, except for diOHTHC at low concentrations in hair (46.1%). Extraction efficiency ranged from 21.5% to 84.5%. The methods were applied to matched nail and hair specimens from 23 cannabis users to study the incorporation and distribution of the cannabinoids into these matrices. Only CBD, CBN and THC were detected in the samples, with much higher concentrations in fingernails than in toenails and hair. Correlations between analyte concentrations in the different matrices and with reported drug consumption were studied. A preliminary cut-off for THC in toenails was calculated using the cut-off proposed by the Society of Hair Testing in hair for the identification of chronic cannabis use.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Cobo-Golpe
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Ana de-Castro-Ríos
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Angelines Cruz
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Manuel López-Rivadulla
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Elena Lendoiro
- Servicio de Toxicología, Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, San Francisco s/n, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
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Cobo-Golpe M, de-Castro-Ríos A, Cruz A, Páramo M, López-Rivadulla M, Lendoiro E. Determination of antipsychotic drugs in nails and hair by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and evaluation of their incorporation into keratinized matrices. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2020; 189:113443. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2020.113443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Chan WS, Wong GF, Hung CW, Wong YN, Fung KM, Lee WK, Dao KL, Leung CW, Lo KM, Lee WM, Cheung BKK. Interpol review of toxicology 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:563-607. [PMID: 33385147 PMCID: PMC7770452 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in toxicology from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20.Papers%202019.pdf.
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Measurement of three-dimensional distributions of drugs in nails using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry after micro-segmentation to elucidate drug uptake routes. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1108:89-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.02.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Wiart JF, Hakim F, Andry A, Eiden C, Drevin G, Lelièvre B, Rougé-Maillart C, Decourcelle M, Lemaire-Hurtel AS, Allorge D, Gaulier JM. Pitfalls of toxicological investigations in hair, bones, and nails in extensively decomposed bodies: illustration with two cases. Int J Legal Med 2020; 134:1339-1344. [DOI: 10.1007/s00414-020-02267-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Pelissier-Alicot AL, Kintz P, Ameline A, Bosdure E, Chabrol B, Neant N, Torrents R, Sastre C, Baillif-Couniou V, Tuchtan-Torrents L, Leonetti G. Bromazepam intoxication in an infant: Contribution of hair and nail analysis. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:397-401. [PMID: 31997564 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Pascal Kintz
- Laboratoire de Toxicologie, Institut de Médecine Légale, Strasbourg, France
| | - Alice Ameline
- Laboratoire de Toxicologie, Institut de Médecine Légale, Strasbourg, France
| | - Emmanuelle Bosdure
- Aix Marseille University, APHM, Hôpital La Timone, Service de Pédiatrie Spécialisée et de Médecine Infantile, Marseille, France
| | - Brigitte Chabrol
- Aix Marseille University, APHM, Hôpital La Timone, Service de Pédiatrie Spécialisée et de Médecine Infantile, Marseille, France
| | - Nadège Neant
- Laboratoire de Pharmacocinétique et Toxicologie, Aix Marseille University, APHM, INSERM, CNRS, CRCM SMARTc, Hôpital La Timone, Marseille, France
| | - Romain Torrents
- Aix Marseille University, APHM, Hôpitaux Sud, Pharmacologie Toxicologie Clinique - Centre Anti-Poison et de ToxicoVigilance (CAP-TV), Marseille, France
| | - Caroline Sastre
- Service de Médecine Légale, Aix Marseille University, APHM, Hôpital La Timone, Marseille, France
| | - Valérie Baillif-Couniou
- Service de Médecine Légale, Aix Marseille University, APHM, Hôpital La Timone, Marseille, France
| | - Lucile Tuchtan-Torrents
- Service de Médecine Légale, Aix Marseille University, APHM, Hôpital La Timone, Marseille, France
| | - Georges Leonetti
- Service de Médecine Légale, Aix Marseille University, APHM, Hôpital La Timone, Marseille, France
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Mendes GD, Pereira TDS, Rodrigues JC, Santos EM, Souza MR, Lopes‐Martins RAB, Antunes NDJ, Moreno RA, De Nucci G. Comparative bioavailability of two zolpidem hemitartrate formulations in healthy human Brazilian volunteers using high‐performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Biomed Chromatogr 2020; 34:e4731. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.4731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo D. Mendes
- Programa de Mestrado Profissional de Saúde e Meio Ambiente da Universidade Metropolitana de Santos Santos Brazil
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculdade São Leopoldo MandicInstituto de Pesquisas São Leopoldo Mandic Campinas Brazil
| | - Thais da Silva Pereira
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical SciencesState University of Campinas (UNICAMP) Campinas/SP Brazil
| | - Júlio César Rodrigues
- Programa de Mestrado Profissional de Saúde e Meio Ambiente da Universidade Metropolitana de Santos Santos Brazil
| | - Elaine Marcílio Santos
- Programa de Mestrado Profissional de Saúde e Meio Ambiente da Universidade Metropolitana de Santos Santos Brazil
| | - Mariani Rafaela Souza
- Programa de Mestrado Profissional de Saúde e Meio Ambiente da Universidade Metropolitana de Santos Santos Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Alvaro Brandão Lopes‐Martins
- Laboratory of Biophotonics and Experimental Therapeutics, Instituto de Pesquisa & Desenvolvimento – IP&DUniversidade do Vale do Paraíba São José dos Campos Brazil
| | - Natalícia de Jesus Antunes
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical SciencesState University of Campinas (UNICAMP) Campinas/SP Brazil
| | | | - Gilberto De Nucci
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical SciencesState University of Campinas (UNICAMP) Campinas/SP Brazil
- Programa de Mestrado Profissional de Saúde e Meio Ambiente da Universidade Metropolitana de Santos Santos Brazil
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculdade São Leopoldo MandicInstituto de Pesquisas São Leopoldo Mandic Campinas Brazil
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Kintz P, Ameline A, Raul JS. Administration cachée de chlorphéniramine à un enfant de 5 ans : la preuve par les ongles. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2019.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Qriouet Z, Qmichou Z, Bouchoutrouch N, Mahi H, Cherrah Y, Sefrioui H. Analytical Methods Used for the Detection and Quantification of Benzodiazepines. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2019; 2019:2035492. [PMID: 31583157 PMCID: PMC6748181 DOI: 10.1155/2019/2035492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The prescription of psychotropic drugs, especially benzodiazepines (BZDs), occupies a preponderant place in the management of mental illnesses. Indeed, the BZDs have been used in different therapeutic areas including insomnia, anxiety, seizure disorders, or general anesthesia. Unfortunately, these drugs are present in the illegal street market, leading to a lot of drug abuse amongst some addicted users, road insecurity, and suicide. Hence, it has become essential to analyze the BZDs drugs in human biological specimens for drug abuse in forensic sciences. The present review provides a summary of sample preparation techniques (solid-phase extraction and Liquid-liquid phase extraction) and the methods for the detection and quantification of BZDs molecules in the commonly used biological specimens over the ten last years which may potentially lead to better and accurate evaluation of the physiological state of a given person. The commonly used methods for the detection and quantification of BZDs include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), chromatography (GC-MS, HPLC, and TLC), immunoassay (ELISA, RIA, LFA, CEDEA, FPIA, and KIMS), and electroanalytical methods (voltammetry and potentiometry).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zidane Qriouet
- Medical Biotechnology Center, Moroccan Foundation for Science, Innovation & Research (MAScIR), Rabat, Morocco
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie et Toxicologie, Faculté de Médecine et de Pharmacie, Université Mohammed V-Souissi, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Zineb Qmichou
- Medical Biotechnology Center, Moroccan Foundation for Science, Innovation & Research (MAScIR), Rabat, Morocco
| | - Nadia Bouchoutrouch
- Medical Biotechnology Center, Moroccan Foundation for Science, Innovation & Research (MAScIR), Rabat, Morocco
| | - Hassan Mahi
- Medical Biotechnology Center, Moroccan Foundation for Science, Innovation & Research (MAScIR), Rabat, Morocco
| | - Yahia Cherrah
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie et Toxicologie, Faculté de Médecine et de Pharmacie, Université Mohammed V-Souissi, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Hassan Sefrioui
- Medical Biotechnology Center, Moroccan Foundation for Science, Innovation & Research (MAScIR), Rabat, Morocco
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