Evaluation of naproxen-induced oxidative stress, hepatotoxicity and in-vivo genotoxicity in male Wistar rats

Association of alkylphenols exposure with serum liver function markers in pregnant women in Guangxi, China

The liver toxicity of alkylphenols (APs) has been demonstrated in animal studies. However, relevant epidemiological evidence is still lacking in humans, especially during pregnancy. We obtained the levels of biochemical indicators of liver function in early (<13 weeks, mean gestation=9.80±1.96 weeks) and late (≥32 weeks, mean gestation = 37.23±2.45 weeks) pregnancies from 219 pregnant women in the Guangxi Zhuang birth cohort from 2015-2017. We also examined the serum levels of APs in these pregnant women in early pregnancy. The present study aimed to investigate the correlations between the exposure of pregnant women to APs and their serum liver function indices. The results of the generalized linear model (GLM) in this study revealed that nonylphenol (NP) was positively correlated with total bilirubin (TBIL) (P=0.04) in early pregnancy, and 4-n-nonylphenol (4-N-NP) was negatively correlated with glutamyl transferase (GGT) (P=0.012). In late pregnancy, NP was positively associated with TBIL (P=0.002), and 4-tert-octylphenol (4-T-OP) was positively correlated with alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (P=0.02). Restricted cubic spline (RCS) results revealed doseresponse relationships between NP and TBIL (Poverall=0.011) and between 4-N-NP and GGT (Poverall=0.007) in early pregnancy. In late pregnancy, there were doseresponse relationships between NP and TBIL (Poverall=0.001) and between 4-T-OP and ALT (Poverall=0.033). There was also a doseresponse relationship between NP volume and GGT with an inverted 'U' shape (Poverall=0.041, Pnonlinear=0.012). Bayesian kernel machine regression modeling (BKMR) revealed that TBIL increased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing levels of coexposure to APs in both early and late pregnancy. Overall, exposure to APs during pregnancy affects maternal liver function to varying degrees. The present study provides new epidemiological evidence that exposure to alkylphenols in pregnant women interferes with liver function.

Testing of acute and sub-acute toxicity profile of novel naproxen sodium nanoformulation in male and female mice

Nanodrugs offer promising alternatives to conventionally used over the counter drugs. Compared to its free form, therapeutic benefits, and gastric tissue safety of naproxen sodium nanoformulation (NpNF) were recently demonstrated. Essential regulatory safety data for this formulation are, however, not available. To address this, male and female BALB/c mice were subjected to acute and 14-day repeated-oral dose assessments. Our data indicate that NpNF was well tolerated up to 2000 mg/kg b.w. A 14-day subacute toxicity testing revealed that the oral administration of low dose (30 mg/kg) NpNF did not produce any adverse effects on blood profile and serum biochemical parameters. Levels of oxidative stress markers and antioxidant enzymes neared normal. Histology of selected tissues also showed no evidence of toxicity. In contrast, a ten-fold increase in NpNF dosage (300 mg/kg), demonstrated, irrespective of gender, mild to moderate toxicity (p < 0.05) in the brain, stomach, and heart tissues, while ROS, LPO, CAT, SOD, POD, and GSH levels remained unaffected in the liver, kidney, spleen, testis, and seminal vesicles. No effect on serum biochemical parameters, overall indicated a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) is 300 mg/kg. Further increase in dosage (1000 mg/kg) significantly altered all parameters demonstrating that high dose is toxic.

Phototoxic action of meloxicam contributes to dysregulation of redox homeostasis in normal human skin cells - Molecular and biochemical analysis of antioxidant enzymes in melanocytes and fibroblasts

The phototoxic effect of meloxicam (MLX) raises the question of the effect of the drug on the redox homeostasis of normal human skin cells. The main objective of the study was to analyze the effect of MLX and/or UVA radiation (UVAR) on the redox homeostasis of human normal skin cells - melanocytes and fibroblasts. MLX was found to affect the activity and expression of enzymes of the antioxidant system differently depending on the cell line used. The drug decreased the activity and expression of superoxide dismutase type 1 and 2 (SOD1 and SOD2), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in fibroblasts, while increasing the activity of these enzymes in melanocytes. UVA radiation enhanced the effects of the drug. In conclusion, MLX in combination with UVAR induces oxidative stress in melanocytes and fibroblasts, however, the analyses showed that the drug's effect the activity and expression of SOD, CAT and GPx differently, depending on the cell line. The observed dissimilarity between tested cell lines may result from the presence of melanin pigments.

Rifampicin-induced ER stress and excessive cytoplasmic vacuolization instigate hepatotoxicity via alternate programmed cell death paraptosis in vitro and in vivo

AIMS

Rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicity is a primary cause of drug-induced liver injury (DILI), posing a significant challenge to its continued clinical application. Moreover, the mechanism underlying rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicity remains unclear.

MAIN METHODS

Human hepatocyte line-17 (HHL-17) cells were treated with an increasing dose of rifampicin for 24 h, and male Wistar rats were given rifampicin [150 mg/kg body weight (bw)] orally for 28 days. Viability assay, protein expression, and cell death assays were analyzed in vitro. Moreover, liver serum markers, body/organ weight, H&E staining, protein expression, etc., were assayed in vivo.

KEY FINDINGS

Rifampicin induced a dose-dependent hepatotoxicity in HHL-17 cells (IC50; 600 μM), and increased the serum levels of liver injury markers, e.g., alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) in rats. Rifampicin-induced cell death was non-apoptotic and non-necroptotic both in vitro and in vivo. Further, excessive cellular vacuolization and reduced expression of Alix protein confirmed the induction of paraptosis both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, a significant increase in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress markers (e.g., BiP, CHOP, and total polyubiquitinated proteins) was detected, demonstrating the induction of ER stress and altered protein homeostasis. Interestingly, rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicity was associated with the inhibition of autophagy and enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in HHL-17 cells. Furthermore, inhibition of protein synthesis by cycloheximide (CHX) suppressed paraptosis by alleviating rifampicin-induced ER stress and ROS generation.

SIGNIFICANCE

Rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicity involves ER stress-driven paraptosis as a novel mechanism of its toxicity that may be targeted to protect liver cells from rifampicin toxicity.

Occurrence, toxicity, impact and removal of selected non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): A review

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most frequently used pharmaceuticals for human therapy, pet therapeutics, and veterinary feeds, enabling them to enter into water sources such as wastewater, soil and sediment, and seawater. The control of NSAIDs has led to the advent of the novel materials for treatment techniques. Herein, we review the occurrence, impact and toxicity of NSAIDs against aquatic microorganisms, plants and humans. Typical NSAIDs, e.g., ibuprofen, ketoprofen, diclofenac, naproxen and aspirin were detected at high concentrations in wastewater up to 2,747,000 ng L-1. NSAIDs in water could cause genotoxicity, endocrine disruption, locomotive disorders, body deformations, organs damage, and photosynthetic corruption. Considering treatment methods, among adsorbents for removal of NSAIDs from water, metal-organic frameworks (10.7-638 mg g-1) and advanced porous carbons (7.4-400 mg g-1) were the most robust. Therefore, these carbon-based adsorbents showed promise in efficiency for the treatment of NSAIDs.

Mefenamic Acid-Upregulated Nrf2/SQSTM1 Protects Hepatocytes against Oxidative Stress-Induced Cell Damage

Mefenamic acid (MFA) is a commonly prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. MFA is known to have potent antioxidant properties and a neuroprotective effect against oxidative stress. However, its impact on the liver is unclear. This study aimed to elucidate the antioxidative effects of MFA and their underlying mechanisms. We observed that MFA treatment upregulated the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. Treatment with various anthranilic acid derivative-class NSAIDs, including MFA, increased the expression of sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1) in HepG2 cells. MFA disrupted the interaction between Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) and Nrf2, activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway. SQTM1 knockdown experiments revealed that the effect of MFA on the Nrf2 pathway was masked in the absence of SQSTM1. To assess the cytoprotective effect of MFA, we employed tert-Butyl hydroperoxide (tBHP) as a ROS inducer. Notably, MFA exhibited a protective effect against tBHP-induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells. This cytoprotective effect was abolished when SQSTM1 was knocked down, suggesting the involvement of SQSTM1 in mediating the protective effect of MFA against tBHP-induced toxicity. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that MFA exhibits cytoprotective effects by upregulating SQSTM1 and activating the Nrf2 pathway. These findings improve our understanding of the pharmacological actions of MFA and highlight its potential as a therapeutic agent for oxidative stress-related conditions.

Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) and Male Reproductive Health: Challenging the Future with a Double-Edged Sword

Approximately 9% of couples are infertile, with half of these cases relating to male factors. While many cases of male infertility are associated with genetic and lifestyle factors, approximately 30% of cases are still idiopathic. Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) denote substances identified in the environment for the first time or detected at low concentrations during water quality analysis. Since CEC production and use have increased in recent decades, CECs are now ubiquitous in surface and groundwater. CECs are increasingly observed in human tissues, and parallel reports indicate that semen quality is continuously declining, supporting the notion that CECs may play a role in infertility. This narrative review focuses on several CECs (including pesticides and pharmaceuticals) detected in the nearshore marine environment of False Bay, Cape Town, South Africa, and deliberates their potential effects on male fertility and the offspring of exposed parents, as well as the use of spermatozoa in toxicological studies. Collective findings report that chronic in vivo exposure to pesticides, including atrazine, simazine, and chlorpyrifos, is likely to be detrimental to the reproduction of many organisms, as well as to sperm performance in vitro. Similarly, exposure to pharmaceuticals such as diclofenac and naproxen impairs sperm motility both in vivo and in vitro. These contaminants are also likely to play a key role in health and disease in offspring sired by parents exposed to CECs. On the other side of the double-edged sword, we propose that due to its sensitivity to environmental conditions, spermatozoa could be used as a bioindicator in eco- and repro-toxicology studies.

The effectiveness of anti-inflammatory agents in reducing chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment in preclinical models - A systematic review

Chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment (CICI) is a debilitating condition resulting from chemotherapy administration for cancer treatment. CICI is characterised by various cognitive impairments, including issues with learning, memory, and concentration, impacting quality of life. Several neural mechanisms are proposed to drive CICI, including inflammation, therefore, anti-inflammatory agents could ameliorate such impairments. Research is still in the preclinical stage; however, the efficacy of anti-inflammatories to reduce CICI in animal models is unknown. Therefore, a systematic review was conducted, with searches performed in PubMed, Scopus, Embase, PsycInfo and Cochrane Library. A total of 64 studies were included, and of the 50 agents identified, 41 (82%) reduced CICI. Interestingly, while non-traditional anti-inflammatory agents and natural compounds reduced impairment, the traditional agents were unsuccessful. Such results must be taken with caution due to the heterogeneity observed in terms of methods employed. Nevertheless, preliminary evidence suggests anti-inflammatory agents could be beneficial for treating CICI, although it may be critical to think beyond the use of traditional anti-inflammatories when considering which specific compounds to prioritise in development.

Hippocampal neuroinflammation following combined exposure to cyclophosphamide and naproxen in ovariectomized mice

Aim: Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy report cognitive changes collectively termed "chemo brain." Neuroinflammation is among the factors believed to contribute to "chemo brain" suggesting a potential beneficial role for anti-inflammatory drugs in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. We investigated whether the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug naproxen influenced hippocampal inflammation in non-tumor bearing female mice receiving the chemotherapy drug cyclophosphamide (CP).Materials and methods: Intact and ovariectomized C57BL/6 mice were used to examine potential role of ovarian hormones on neuroinflammation. The mice were placed on naproxen (375 ppm) or control diet, and a week later CP (100 mg/kg; i.p.) was administered every 3 days for 2 weeks. We analyzed hippocampal inflammatory biomarkers, anxiety-like behavior, spatial working memory, exploratory behavior, spontaneous locomotor activity and depression-like behavior.Results: CP produced significant effects on anti-inflammatory but not pro-inflammatory biomarkers. However, CP and naproxen in combination produced significant effects on both pro- and anti- inflammatory biomarkers. Naproxen and ovariectomy individually produced significant effects on pro- and anti-inflammatory biomarkers as well. Working memory and depression-like behavior were not significantly influenced by CP, naproxen or ovariectomy individually although CP and ovariectomy produced significant interaction effects on depression-like behavior. Exploratory behavior and locomotor activity showed significant effects of CP, and interaction between CP and naproxen was significant for locomotor activity.Conclusions: Ovariectomy, naproxen and a combination of CP and naproxen upregulate hippocampal pro- and anti- inflammatory biomarkers. None of the factors individually produce significant behavioral changes that could be consistent with chemo brain, although CP and ovariectomy in combination produced significant effects on depression-like behavior, a co-morbidity of chemo brain.

Removal of naproxen and diclofenac using magnetic nanoparticles/nanocomposites

Magnetic iron oxide and iron/copper nanoparticles were synthesized using Lathyrus brachypterus extract, and then magnetic Fe₃O₄–CS, Fe₃O₄–AT, Fe/Cu–CS and Fe/Cu–AT nanocomposite beads were synthesized using chitosan and alginate natural polymers. They were used for both adsorption and heterogeneous catalysts for the catalytic wet peroxidation (CWPO) of naproxen (NPX), diclofenac (DCF) and NPX + DCF drugs which are important micro-organic pollutants, separately and together (NPX + DCF) from aqueous media. In adsorption studies, the drugs were adsorbed very quickly in the first minutes and then, desorbed in between 8 and 10 min. In competitive adsorption, the adsorbents showed selective properties for DCF and NPX. In CWPO technique, drug removal was achieved in 9 min with a conversion capacity of 92% for DCF with Fe/Cu–CS and 84% for NPX with Fe/Cu–AT optimum experimental conditions, such as pH 5, 30% of H₂O₂, 100 mg catalyst and 298 K. Based on reusability of the catalysts, it was seen that there was a slight decrease in the removal efficiencies in the third cycle and the stable and active structure of the catalyst was preserved to the desired extent. Furthermore, the oxidation reaction was in good agreement with the pseudo-first-order kinetic model.

Naproxen sodium nanoparticles are less toxic and gastroprotective agents than the conventional NSAID drug naproxen sodium in Balb/c mice

Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is one of the leading causes of gastric ulcers. Excellent therapeutic properties have made the use of NSAIDs widespread. Nano-drug delivery to reduce systemic toxicity through modulating drug pharmacokinetics may be a better choice. Presently, we investigated if naproxen nanoformulation (PVA capped NPRS-MgO NPs) is less toxic to be used as an alternative drug. Groups of mice were assigned to control, NPRS-treated, CNF-treated, UNF-treated, and MgO NPs-treated groups. Analyses included gross examination of gastric mucosa, calculation of ulcer and inhibition indices, determination of tissue levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and reduced glutathione (GSH), histological and immunohistochemical assessment of i-NOS, COX-2, and caspase-3 of stomach mucosa, q-PCR for the detection of mRNA expression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Results were compared statistically at P < 0.05. Compared to NPRS-treated mice which developed multiple ulcers, had elevated MDA and ROS levels, and deceased CAT, POD, SOD, and GSH levels, significantly increased expression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α mRNA, damaged surface epithelium with disrupted glandular architecture and leucocyte infiltration of lamina propria with a marked increase in mucosal COX-2, i-NOS, and caspase-3 expression, oral administration of coated and uncoated naproxen nanoformulations prevented the gross mucosal damage by a restoration of all biochemical, histological, and immunohistochemical alterations to near control levels. The present study demonstrates that naproxen sodium nanoformulation has a gastroprotective action and in the clinical setting can be a better alternative to conventional naproxen.

Protection Against Drug-Induced Liver Injuries Through Nutraceuticals via Amelioration of Nrf-2 Signaling

Hepatotoxicity caused by the overdose of various medications is a leading cause of drug-induced liver injury. Overdose of drugs causes hepatocellular necrosis. Nutraceuticals are reported to prevent drug-induced liver failure. The present article aims to review the protection provided by various medicinal plants against hepatotoxic drugs. Ayurveda is considered a conventional restorative arrangement in India. It is consistently used for ages and is still used today to cure drug-induced hepatotoxicity by focusing on antioxidant stress response pathways such as the nuclear factor erythroid-2 (Nrf-2) antioxidant response element signaling pathway. Nrf-2 is a key transcription factor that entangles Kelch-like ECH-associating protein 1, a protein found in the cell cytoplasm. Some antioxidant enzymes, such as gamma glycine cysteine ligase (γ-GCL) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), are expressed in Nrf-2 targeted genes. Their expression, in turn, decreases the stimulation of hepatic macrophages and induces the messenger RNA (mRNA) articulation of proinflammatory factors including tumor necrosis factor α. This review will cover various medicinal plants from a mechanistic view and how they stimulate and interact with Nrf-2, the master regulator of the antioxidant response to counterbalance oxidative stress. Interestingly, therapeutic plants have become popular in the medical sector due to safer yet effective supplementation for the prevention and treatment of new human diseases. The contemporary study is expected to collect information on a variety of therapeutic traditional herbs that have been studied in the context of drug-induced liver toxicity, as nutraceuticals are the most effective treatments for oxidative stress-induced hepatotoxicity. They are less genotoxic, have a lower cost, and are readily available. Together, nutraceuticals exert protective effects against drug-induced hepatotoxicity through the inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis. Its mechanism(s) are considered to be associated with the γ-GCL/HO-1 and Nrf-2 signaling pathways. KEY TEACHING POINTSThe liver is the most significant vital organ that carries out metabolic activities of the body such as the synthesis of glycogen, the formation of triglycerides and cholesterol, as well as the formation of bile.Acute liver failure is caused by the consumption of certain drugs; drug-induced liver injury is the major condition.The chemopreventive activity of nutraceuticals may be related to oxidative stress reduction and attenuation of biosynthetic processes involved in hepatic injury via amelioration of the nuclear factor erythroid-2 (Nrf-2) signaling pathway.Nrf-2 is a key transcription factor that is found in the cell cytoplasm resulting in the expression of various genes such as gamma glycine cysteine ligase and heme oxygenase-1.Nutraceutical-rich phytochemicals possess high antioxidant activity, which helps in the prevention of hepatic injury.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Gynura procumbens on RAW264.7 Cells via Regulation of the PI3K/Akt and MAPK Signaling Pathways

Gynura procumbens is a traditional herb and food extensively cultivated in China and Southeast Asian countries. In this work, the crude extract (CE) of G. procumbens was purified with macroporous resin to obtain the refined fraction, and its anti-inflammatory activity was compared with that of CE. Moreover, the detailed mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity were also investigated for the first time. The results indicated that CE was more effective in anti-inflammatory activity and it could reduce the secretion of NO, TNF-α, and PGE2 via decreasing the iNOS, TNF-α, and COX-2 genes transcription and related proteins translation, which were associated with the inhibition of AP-1 and NF-κB nuclear translocation and downregulation of PI3K/Akt and MAPK signaling pathways. In conclusion, the extract of G. procumbens has a promising potential in inflammation-related disorders alleviation, and these findings could provide the basis for the comprehensive utilization of G. procumbens and the new functional food development.

Pharmaceuticals as emerging pollutants: Case naproxen an overview

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), including naproxen (NP), diclofenac, ibuprofen, etc., are widely used for fever and pain relief. NP is one of the most widely consumed drugs in the world, because it is available over the counter in many countries. Many studies have proven that NP is not eliminated in conventional water treatment processes and its biodegradation in the environment is also difficult compared to other drugs. Along these lines, we are aware that both the original compound and its metabolites can be found in different destinations in the environment. To assess the environmental exposure and the risks associated with NP, it is important to understand better the environment where they finally reach, the behavior of its original compounds, its metabolites, and its transformation products. In this sense, the purpose of this review is to summarize the current state of knowledge about the introduction and behavior of NP in the environments they reach and highlight research needs and gaps. Likewise, we present the sources, environmental destinations, toxicology, environmental effects, and quantification methodologies.

Adsorptive remediation of naproxen from water using in-house developed hybrid material functionalized with iron oxide

Every year, a considerable volume of medications is consumed. Because these medications are not entirely eliminated in the sewage treatment plants and impact the surface waterways, the environmental pollution problem arises. This study objective was to evaluate the possibility of using an absorbent material made with of polyethylene terephthalate and sugarcane bagasse ash functionalized with iron oxide (PETSCA/Fe³⁺) in the removal of naproxen from water. The feasibility of having viable features in becoming an efficient adsorbent was first determined. The batch test was performed, allowing the dose effect, adsorption kinetics, and isotherm models to be evaluated. The determination of naproxen (NAP) concentration in water was analyzed on a high-performance liquid chromatograph and Langmuir method best represented the adsorption isotherm model. PETSCA/Fe³⁺ adsorbent material demonstrated potential in the naproxen removal at a low cost. The batching process was satisfactory, with 0.30 g of composite being the optimum fit for the system. The adsorption kinetics was determined and described by the pseudo second order model, with an average correlation coefficient (R²) of 0.974. The adsorption system model was best represented by the Langmuir isotherm curve. Moreover, adsorption in the presence of H₂O₂ had a positive impact on the process, removing 81.9% of NAP, whereas the process without H₂O₂ did not remove more than 62.0% of NAP. Therefore, because of its good qualities for NAP removal, PETSCA/Fe³⁺ is recommended as adsorbent material, primarily in small-volume water filtration systems.

Naringenin alleviates paraquat-induced dopaminergic neuronal loss in SH-SY5Y cells and a rat model of Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD), a common neurodegenerative disease is characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The cause of dopaminergic loss in PD remains unknown for a long time, however, recent reports suggest oxidative stress plays a key role in the pathogenesis of PD. Paraquat (PQ), a widely used herbicide is an oxidative stress inducer that has been implicated as a potential risk factor for the development of PD. Flavonoids are naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds that display a variety of therapeutic properties against oxidative stress. Naringenin (NAR), a natural flavonoid, exhibits neuroprotection against PD-related pathology. However, studies on its neuroprotective role and the underlying mechanisms are scarce, therefore the present study explored the potential neuroprotective role of NAR in PQ-induced parkinsonism in SH-SY5Y cells and rat model. The effect of NAR on PQ-induced cellular toxicity was determined by measuring cell viability, oxidative stress, ATP levels and the same effect was determined by assessing behavioral, biochemical, immunohistochemical, qRT-PCR and Western blot in rat model. NAR treatment in SH-SY5Y cells resulted in increased cell viability, reduced oxidative stress, elevated mitochondrial membrane potential, and higher cellular ATP levels. In rats, NAR treatment resulted in significant neuroprotection against PQ-induced behavioral deficits, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and astrocytosis. NAR treatment significantly modulated PQ-induced mRNA expressions of DRD2, DAT, LRRK2, SNCA, β-catenin, caspase-3, BDNF genes. NAR treatment increased TH protein expression and modulated its immunoreactivity in rat striatum. Also, GFAP decreased in response to NAR treatment. So, in the present study, NAR exhibits neuroprotection against PQ-induced neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration indicating its novel therapeutic potential against PD.

Amelioration of the hepatotoxic effects of nonsteroidal drugs using vitamin C and determination of their relationship with the lipid profile

Objective

Despite the various clinical benefits of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, their frequent and prolonged use has led to numerous health risks, including hepatotoxicity. Hepatotoxicity mediated by oxidative stress can affect the lipid profile. The objective was to investigate whether post-treatment with vitamin C can ameliorate the effects of diclofenac and naproxen in the livers of prepubertal rats and to highlight their relationship with lipid profile.

Methods

Forty prepubertal female albino rats were distributed among the control group, the diclofenac-administered group (5 mg/kg/day), and the naproxen-administered group (50 mg/kg/day). This study included two phases. In Phase 1, only five rats from each group were dissected after 21 days of oral administration to assess the hepatotoxic effects of nonsteroidal drugs. In Phase 2, five of the remaining animals in each intervention group were post-treated with 25 mg/kg/day of vitamin C for an additional 21 days. After the administration and post-treatment, serum biochemical parameters and histopathological signs were evaluated.

Results

Extreme elevation in the levels of aspartate and alanine aminotransferases was observed in the diclofenac and naproxen groups compared with those in the control (p < 0.001). In addition, the levels of high- and low-density lipoproteins were significantly impacted in these drug groups (p < 0.01, p < 0.05 respectively). Several pathological signs in the liver histology were observed in both drug groups. After post-treatment with vitamin C, noticeable amelioration of these alterations was observed. There were slightly elevation in the liver enzymes and insignificant increase and decrease in the high and low-density lipoproteins respectively.

Conclusion

Vitamin C post-treatment ameliorated the hepatotoxicity induced by diclofenac sodium and naproxen.

Non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals promote the transmission of multidrug resistance plasmids through intra- and intergenera conjugation

Antibiotic resistance is a global threat to public health. The use of antibiotics at sub-inhibitory concentrations has been recognized as an important factor in disseminating antibiotic resistance via horizontal gene transfer. Although non-antibiotic, human-targeted pharmaceuticals are widely used by society (95% of the pharmaceuticals market), the potential contribution to the spread of antibiotic resistance is not clear. Here, we report that commonly consumed, non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac), a lipid-lowering drug (gemfibrozil), and a β-blocker (propranolol), at clinically and environmentally relevant concentrations, significantly accelerated the dissemination of antibiotic resistance via plasmid-borne bacterial conjugation. Various indicators were used to study the bacterial response to these drugs, including monitoring reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell membrane permeability by flow cytometry, cell arrangement, and whole-genome RNA and protein sequencing. Enhanced conjugation correlated well with increased production of ROS and cell membrane permeability. Additionally, these non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals induced responses similar to those detected when bacteria are exposed to antibiotics, such as inducing the SOS response and enhancing efflux pumps. The findings advance understanding of the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes, emphasizing the concern that non-antibiotic, human-targeted pharmaceuticals enhance the spread of antibiotic resistance among bacterial populations.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and organ damage: A current perspective

Owing to the efficacy in reducing pain and inflammation, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are amongst the most popularly used medicines confirming their position in the WHO's Model List of Essential Medicines. With escalating musculoskeletal complications, as evident from 2016 Global Burden of Disease data, NSAID usage is evidently unavoidable. Apart from analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic efficacies, NSAIDs are further documented to offer protection against diverse critical disorders including cancer and heart attacks. However, data from multiple placebo-controlled trials and meta-analyses studies alarmingly signify the adverse effects of NSAIDs in gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, hepatic, renal, cerebral and pulmonary complications. Although extensive research has elucidated the mechanisms underlying the clinical hazards of NSAIDs, no review has extensively collated the outcomes on various multiorgan toxicities of these drugs together. In this regard, the present review provides a comprehensive insight of the existing knowledge and recent developments on NSAID-induced organ damage. It precisely encompasses the current understanding of structure, classification and mode of action of NSAIDs while reiterating on the emerging instances of NSAID drug repurposing along with pharmacophore modification aimed at safer usage of NSAIDs where toxic effects are tamed without compromising the clinical benefits. The review does not intend to vilify these 'wonder drugs'; rather provides a careful understanding of their side-effects which would be beneficial in evaluating the risk-benefit threshold while rationally using NSAIDs at safer dose and duration.

Electrochemical analysis of naproxen in water using poly(l-serine)-modified glassy carbon electrode

A poly(l-serine)-modified glassy carbon electrode (PLS/GCE) was fabricated by electropolymerization and used to study the detection of naproxen (NPX), a representative non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, in phosphate buffer supporting electrolyte at pH 5.0. Results indicated that the PLS/GCE was capable of determination of NPX at a working potential of 0.92 (vs. Ag/AgCl) in voltammetry mode. Experimental factors such as scan rate, accumulation time, solution pH, initial NPX concentration, and interferences were optimized for NPX determination efficiency. The morphology and elemental distribution of the electrode surface were characterized by ESEM, TEM, PSD, XRD, FTIR, TGA, XPS, and zeta potential. NPX oxidation current increased with increasing analyte concentration and scan rate but decreased with increasing pH. Linear sweep voltammetry calibration curve was established in the NPX concentration range of 4.3-65 μM, with detection limit and average recovery of 0.69 μM (n = 3) and 104 ± 2.5%, respectively. PLS/GCE is simple, accurate, reproducible, and easy for operation, therefore would be cost-effective for the determination of NPX.

Peanut shells-derived biochars prepared from different carbonization processes: Comparison of characterization and mechanism of naproxen adsorption in water

The ubiquitous appearance of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (i.e., naproxen) in water bodies has raised enormous concerns among general public. Development of promising materials for eliminating such contaminants from water environment has attracted much attention in the scientific community. In this study, three (direct, post-treated and pre-treated) methods were developed to prepare biochars (800-PSB, 800-800-PSB, and 190-800-PSB, respectively) derived from the wastes of peanut shells (PS). They were thoroughly characterized by various important properties (i.e., porosity and superficial functional group) and applied to remove naproxen drug from water. Results indicated that although the pre- and post-treatments had a slight effect on the surface area of biochars (i.e., 571 m²/g for 800-PSB, 596 m²/g for 800-800-PSB, and 496 m²/g for 190-800-PSB), such treatments remarkably improved the adsorption capacity of biochar. The maximum adsorption capacity of biochar (obtained from the Langmuir model) towards naproxen in solution at 25 decreased in the following order: 800-800-PSB (324 mg/g) > 190-800-PSB (215 mg/g) > 800-PSB (105 mg/g). The thermodynamic study demonstrated that the adsorption was spontaneous and exothermic. Depending the preparation process, the contribution of each mechanism in the adsorption process was dissimilar. The overall adsorption mechanism was regarded as pore filling, π-π interaction, hydrogen bonding formations, n-π interaction, van der Waals force, and electrostatic attraction. Two methods used to identify the important role of π-π interaction were proposed herein. The possible desorption and reuse of laden-biochars were investigated by the chemical and thermal methods. The prepared biochar samples can serve as potential carbonaceous porous adsorbents for effectively removing naproxen from water media.

Repeated dose of meloxicam induces genotoxicity and histopathological changes in cardiac tissue of mice

Meloxicam is the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug most used in small animals; however, studies on genotoxicity, oxidative stress, and histopathologic alterations in cardiac tissue are limited, especially at therapeutical doses used in these animals. This study evaluated the toxic effects caused by the treatment involving repeated low at higher doses of meloxicam in mice, by genotoxicity, oxidative stress, and histopathological parameters. Mice (CF1, male) received, by gavage, meloxicam at the therapeutic dose indicated for small animals (0.1 mg/kg) and at higher doses (0.5 and 1 mg/kg) for 28 days. Later, they were euthanized for blood and organ analysis. Oxidative stress was analyzed by the plasma ferric reduction capacity (FRAP) and catalase, and genotoxicity, by the comet assay and the micronucleus test. Heart, liver, lung, and kidney tissues were analyzed by the histology, and stomach and duodenum were analyzed with a magnifying glass. The relative weight of organs did not present significant alterations. However, congestion of duodenum vessels was observed at the three tested doses and caused hyperemia of stomach mucosa at 1 mg/kg. In the heart histology there was a reduction in the number of cardiomyocytes, accompanied by an increase in cell diameter (possible cell hypertrophy) dose-dependent. The highest tested dose of meloxicam also increased the DNA damage index, without alterations in the micronucleus test. Meloxicam did not affect the catalase activity but increased the FRAP (1 mg/kg). Meloxicam at the dose prescribed for small animals could potentially cause cardiac histopathologic alterations and genotoxic effects.

A selective D2 dopamine receptor agonist alleviates depression through up-regulation of tyrosine hydroxylase and increased neurogenesis in hippocampus of the prenatally stressed rats

Prenatal stress (PNS) has its negative impact on both the infant hippocampal neurogenesis and pregnancy outcomes in the neonates that serves as a risk factor for postnatal depression in adult offsprings. Therefore, main objectives of the present study were to evaluate the effect of maternal chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) on behavioural changes, levels of oxidative stress, changes in selective developmental signaling genes and neurogenesis in the adult brain of Wistar rats and its reversal through a selective non-ergoline D2 type dopamine receptor (D2R) agonist Ropinirole (ROPI). Effects of ROPI treatment on CUMS induced adult rats offspring were measured by assessment of behavioural tests (sucrose preference test and forced swim test), biomarkers of oxidative stress, protein expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), mRNA expression of SHH, GSK-3β, β-catenin, Notch, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), Dopamine receptor 2 (Drd2) and bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) cell proliferation assay. The oxidative stress, protein and mRNA expression were determined in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex while the BrdU cell proliferation was observed in the hippocampus of rat brain. PNS induced changes resulted in depression validated by the depression-like behaviours, increased oxidative stress, decreased TH expression, altered expression of selective developmental genes, along with the reduced hippocampal neurogenesis and BDNF expression in the brain of adult offsprings. Chronic ROPI treatment reversed those effects and was equally effective like Imipramine (IMI) treatment. So, the present study suggested that ROPI can be used as an antidepressant drug for the treatment of depressive disorders.

Naproxen ecotoxicity and biodegradation by Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b) strain

High level of naproxen consumption leads to the appearance of this drug in the environment but its possible effects on non-target organisms together with its biodegradation are not well studied. The aim of this work was to evaluate naproxen ecotoxicity by using the Microbial Assay for Risk Assessment. Moreover, Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b) was tested for both ecotoxicity and the ability of this strain to degrade naproxen in cometabolic conditions. The results indicate that the mean value of microbial toxic concentration estimated by MARA test amounts to 1.66 g/L whereas EC₅₀ of naproxen for B1(2015b) strain was 4.69 g/L. At toxic concentration, Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b) showed 16:0 iso 3OH fatty acid presence and an increase in the ratio of total saturated to unsaturated fatty acids. High resistance of the examined strain to naproxen correlated with its ability to degrade this drug in cometabolic conditions. The results of bacterial reverse mutation assay (Ames test) revealed that naproxen at concentrations above 1 g/L showed genotoxic effect but the response was not dose-dependent. Maximal specific naproxen removal rate was observed at pH 6.5 and 30 °C, and in the presence of 0.5 g/L glucose as a growth substrate. Kinetic analysis allowed estimation of the half saturation constant (K_s) and the maximum specific naproxen removal rate (q_max) as 6.86 mg/L and 1.26 mg/L day, respectively. These results indicate that Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b) has a high ability to degrade naproxen and is a potential tool for bioremediation.

A Synthetic Pro-Drug Peptide Reverses Amyloid-β-Induced Toxicity in the Rat Model of Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder, involves the formation of the extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. The current therapies against AD are symptomatic with limited benefits but associated with major side effects. Inhibition of self-aggregation of Aβ peptides into higher order cross-β structure is one of the potential therapeutic approach which may counter oligomerization of Aβ peptide.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory potential of a synthetic Pro-Drug type peptide (PDp) against Aβ-induced toxicity in rat model of AD.

METHODS

Intra-hippocampal microinjection of toxic Aβ40 (IHAβ40) by stereotaxic surgery was performed in the male Sprague-Dawley rats to generate an Aβ-induced AD model. Sub-chronic toxicity of synthetic PDp using hematological, biochemical, and histopathological parameters was investigated. Evaluation of PDp on Aβ-induced neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation was performed.

RESULTS

PDp inhibits plaque formation with increase in Nissl granule staining in the rat hippocampus. Aβ-induced toxicity associated imbalance in reactive oxygen species and antioxidant enzymes activity such as superoxide dismutase and catalase in the rat brain was overcome by PDp treatment. Tau protein hyperphosphorylation was normalized with PDp treatment. Also, the neuroinflammatory response was suppressed with PDp treatment.

CONCLUSION

The present study depicts the potential neuroprotective role of PDp against Aβ-induced toxicity in rat. PDp inhibits plaque formation thereby normalizing oxidative stress, inhibiting tau protein hyperphosphorylation, and suppressing neuroinflammatory responses. Future studies done in this direction will pave way for new therapeutic strategies.