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Inhibitory effect of 405 nm laser light on bacterial biofilm in urethral stent. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3908. [PMID: 36890147 PMCID: PMC9995349 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-30280-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The clinical use of urethral stents is usually complicated by various adverse effects, including dysuria, fever, and urinary tract infection (UTI). Biofilms (formed by bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus) adhering to the stent cause UTIs in stented patients (approximately 11%). The undesirable consequences of antibiotics use include bacterial resistance, weight gain, and type 1 diabetes, which occur when antibiotics are used for a long time. We aimed to assess the efficacy of a new optical treatment with a 405 nm laser to inhibit bacterial growth in a urethral stent in vitro. The urethral stent was grown in S. aureus broth media for three days to induce biofilm formation under dynamic conditions. Various irradiation times with the 405 nm laser light were tested (5, 10, and 15 min). The efficacy of the optical treatment on biofilms was evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively. The production of reactive oxygen species helped eliminate the biofilm over the urethral stent after 405 nm irradiation. The inhibition rate corresponded to a 2.2 log reduction of colony-forming units/mL of bacteria after 0.3 W/cm2 of irradiation for 10 min. The treated stent showed a significant reduction in biofilm formation compared with the untreated stent, as demonstrated by SYTO 9 and propidium iodide staining. MTT assays using the CCD-986sk cell line revealed no toxicity after 10 min of irradiation. We conclude that optical treatment with 405 nm laser light inhibits bacterial growth in urethral stents with no or minimal toxicity.
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2
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Sheng L, Li X, Wang L. Photodynamic inactivation in food systems: A review of its application, mechanisms, and future perspective. Trends Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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3
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Vital role of water in longevity of SARS-CoV-2 and enhancing its binding with human cells. JOURNAL OF THE IRANIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2022. [PMCID: PMC8177267 DOI: 10.1007/s13738-021-02299-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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4
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Terrosi C, Anichini G, Docquier JD, Gori Savellini G, Gandolfo C, Pavone FS, Cusi MG. Efficient Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 and Other RNA or DNA Viruses with Blue LED Light. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10121590. [PMID: 34959545 PMCID: PMC8708627 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10121590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Blue LED light has proven to have a powerful bacteria-killing ability; however, little is known about its mechanism of virucidal activity. Therefore, we analyzed the effect of blue light on different respiratory viruses, such as adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus and SARS-CoV-2. The exposure of samples to a blue LED light with a wavelength of 420 nm (i.e., in the visible range) at 20 mW/cm2 of irradiance for 15 min appeared optimal and resulted in the complete inactivation of the viral load. These results were similar for all the three viruses, demonstrating that both enveloped and naked viruses could be efficiently inactivated with blue LED light, regardless of the presence of envelope and of the viral genome nature (DNA or RNA). Moreover, we provided some explanations to the mechanisms by which the blue LED light could exert its antiviral activity. The development of such safe and low-cost light-based devices appears to be of fundamental utility for limiting viral spread and for sanitizing small environments, objects and surfaces, especially in the pandemic era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Terrosi
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; (C.T.); (G.A.); (J.D.D.); (G.G.S.); (C.G.)
| | - Gabriele Anichini
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; (C.T.); (G.A.); (J.D.D.); (G.G.S.); (C.G.)
| | - Jean Denis Docquier
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; (C.T.); (G.A.); (J.D.D.); (G.G.S.); (C.G.)
| | - Gianni Gori Savellini
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; (C.T.); (G.A.); (J.D.D.); (G.G.S.); (C.G.)
| | - Claudia Gandolfo
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; (C.T.); (G.A.); (J.D.D.); (G.G.S.); (C.G.)
| | - Francesco Saverio Pavone
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, European Laboratory for Non Linear Spectroscopy (LENS), University of Florence, 50121 Florence, Italy;
| | - Maria Grazia Cusi
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies, University of Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; (C.T.); (G.A.); (J.D.D.); (G.G.S.); (C.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0577-233871; Fax: +39-0577-233870
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The role of UV and blue light in photo-eradication of microorganisms. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpap.2021.100064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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6
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Rathnasinghe R, Jangra S, Miorin L, Schotsaert M, Yahnke C, Garcίa-Sastre A. The virucidal effects of 405 nm visible light on SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A virus. Sci Rep 2021; 11:19470. [PMID: 34593848 PMCID: PMC8484654 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97797-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The germicidal potential of specific wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum is an area of growing interest. While ultra-violet (UV) based technologies have shown satisfactory virucidal potential, the photo-toxicity in humans coupled with UV associated polymer degradation limit their use in occupied spaces. Alternatively, longer wavelengths with less irradiation energy such as visible light (405 nm) have largely been explored in the context of bactericidal and fungicidal applications. Such studies indicated that 405 nm mediated inactivation is caused by the absorbance of porphyrins within the organism creating reactive oxygen species which result in free radical damage to its DNA and disruption of cellular functions. The virucidal potential of visible-light based technologies has been largely unexplored and speculated to be ineffective given the lack of porphyrins in viruses. The current study demonstrated increased susceptibility of lipid-enveloped respiratory pathogens of importance such as SARS-CoV-2 (causative agent of COVID-19) and influenza A virus to 405 nm, visible light in the absence of exogenous photosensitizers thereby indicating a potential alternative porphyrin-independent mechanism of visible light mediated viral inactivation. These results were obtained using less than expected irradiance levels which are considered safe for humans and commercially achievable. Our results support further exploration of the use of visible light technology for the application of continuous decontamination in occupied areas within hospitals and/or infectious disease laboratories, specifically for the inactivation of respiratory pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raveen Rathnasinghe
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Sonia Jangra
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Lisa Miorin
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Michael Schotsaert
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | | | - Adolfo Garcίa-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
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7
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Gardner A, Ghosh S, Dunowska M, Brightwell G. Virucidal Efficacy of Blue LED and Far-UVC Light Disinfection against Feline Infectious Peritonitis Virus as a Model for SARS-CoV-2. Viruses 2021; 13:1436. [PMID: 34452302 PMCID: PMC8402852 DOI: 10.3390/v13081436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) occurs through respiratory droplets passed directly from person to person or indirectly through fomites, such as common use surfaces or objects. The aim of this study was to determine the virucidal efficacy of blue LED (405 nm) and far-UVC (222 nm) light in comparison to standard UVC (254 nm) irradiation for the inactivation of feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) on different matrices as a model for SARS-CoV-2. Wet or dried FIPV on stainless steel, plastic, or paper discs, in the presence or absence of artificial saliva, were exposed to various wavelengths of light for different time periods (1-90 min). Dual activity of blue LED and far-UVC lights were virucidal for most wet and dried FIPV within 4 to 16 min on all matrices. Individual action of blue LED and far-UVC lights were virucidal for wet FIPV but required longer irradiation times (8-90 min) to reach a 4-log reduction. In comparison, LED (265 nm) and germicidal UVC (254 nm) were virucidal on almost all matrices for both wet and dried FIPV within 1 min exposure. UVC was more effective for the disinfection of surfaces as compared to blue LED and far-UVC individually or together. However, dual action of blue LED and far-UVC was virucidal. This combination of lights could be used as a safer alternative to traditional UVC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Gardner
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Corner University Ave and Library Road, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Sayani Ghosh
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University Manawatu (Turitea), Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand; (S.G.); (M.D.)
| | - Magdalena Dunowska
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University Manawatu (Turitea), Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand; (S.G.); (M.D.)
| | - Gale Brightwell
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Corner University Ave and Library Road, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University Manawatu (Turitea), Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
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Neves ACO, Viana AD, Menezes FG, Wanderlei Neto AO, Melo MCN, Gasparotto LHS. Biospectroscopy and chemometrics as an analytical tool for comparing the antibacterial mechanism of silver nanoparticles with popular antibiotics against Escherichia coli. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2021; 253:119558. [PMID: 33631629 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.119558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Despite the fact that silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been widely studied in medical and correlated fields, details on their mechanisms are yet to be fully understood. Herein we present the first study on the combination of infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics as an analytical tool to investigate the mechanism of action of AgNPs against Escherichia coli by comparison with popular and commercially available antibiotics. The rationale behind this study is that the selected antibiotics act on bacteria in specific and distinct manners (DNA, cell membrane, mitochondria, etc.). Hence, via multivariate analysis we were able to compare the spectra of bacteria treated with the antibiotics and AgNPs to determine the main target of the latter. Spectral comparison, exploratory analysis, clustering and classification based on infrared spectra were carried out for E. coli samples in the absence and presence (treated) of four widely known antibiotics (ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin and sulfadiazine) as well as RA-AgNPs and ERA-AgNPs. Chemometrics models indicated an interesting similarity between infrared spectra from E. coli treated with sulfadiazine and AgNPs, in which vibrational modes associated to phosphate groups were found to be the most representative. This result suggests that both AgNPs and sulfadiazine affects DNA structural features and availability, but not necessarily through the same mechanism. This biospectroscopy-based approach opens an interesting possibility for the understanding over the mechanism of antibacterial activity of AgNPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C O Neves
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN 59072-970, Brazil.
| | - Anderson D Viana
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN 59072-970, Brazil; Agricultural School of Jundiaí, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Macaíba, RN 59280-000, Brazil
| | - Fabrício G Menezes
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN 59072-970, Brazil
| | | | - Maria Celeste N Melo
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN 59072-970, Brazil
| | - Luiz H S Gasparotto
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN 59072-970, Brazil
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9
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Galo IDC, Prado RP, Santos WGD. Blue and red light photoemitters as approach to inhibit Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa growth. BRAZ J BIOL 2021; 82:e231742. [PMID: 33787710 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.231742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability of pathogenic bacteria acquire resistance to the existing antibiotics has long been considered a dangerous health risk threat. Currently, the use of visible light has been considered a new approach to treat bacterial infections as an alternative to antibiotics. Herein, we investigated the antimicrobial effect of two range of visible light, blue and red, on Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, two pathogenic bacterial commonly found in healthcare settings-acquired infections and responsible for high rate of morbidity and mortality. Bacterial cultures were exposed to blue or red light (470 nm and 660 nm) provided by light-emitting diodes - LED. The fluencies and irradiance used for blue and red light were 284.90 J/cm2, 13.19 mW/cm2 and 603.44 J/cm2, 27.93 mW/cm2 respectively. Different experimental approaches were used to determine the optimal conditions of light application. Only exposure to blue light for 6 hours was able to inhibit about 75% in vitro growth of both bacterial species after 24 hours. The surviving exposed bacteria formed colonies significantly smaller than controls, however, these bacteria were able to resume growth after 48 hours. Blue light was able to inhibit bacterial growth upon inoculation in both saline solution and BHI culture medium. We can conclude that blue light, but not red light, is capable of temporarily retarding the growth of gram negative and gram positive bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- I D C Galo
- Universidade Federal de Jataí - UFJ, Laboratório de Genética e Biologia Molecular, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Aplicadas à Saúde, Jataí, GO, Brasil
| | - R P Prado
- Universidade Federal de Catalão - UFCAT, Departamento de Medicina, Catalão, GO, Brasil
| | - W G Dos Santos
- Universidade Federal de Jataí - UFJ, Laboratório de Genética e Biologia Molecular, Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Aplicadas à Saúde, Jataí, GO, Brasil
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10
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Hoenes K, Bauer R, Spellerberg B, Hessling M. Microbial Photoinactivation by Visible Light Results in Limited Loss of Membrane Integrity. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:341. [PMID: 33807025 PMCID: PMC8005082 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10030341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Interest in visible light irradiation as a microbial inactivation method has widely increased due to multiple possible applications. Resistance development is considered unlikely, because of the multi-target mechanism, based on the induction of reactive oxygen species by wavelength specific photosensitizers. However, the affected targets are still not completely identified. We investigated membrane integrity with the fluorescence staining kit LIVE/DEAD® BacLight™ on a Gram positive and a Gram negative bacterial species, irradiating Staphylococcus carnosus and Pseudomonas fluorescens with 405 nm and 450 nm. To exclude the generation of viable but nonculturable (VBNC) bacterial cells, we applied an ATP test, measuring the loss of vitality. Pronounced uptake of propidium iodide was only observed in Pseudomonas fluorescens at 405 nm. Transmission electron micrographs revealed no obvious differences between irradiated samples and controls, especially no indication of an increased bacterial cell lysis could be observed. Based on our results and previous literature, we suggest that visible light photoinactivation does not lead to rapid bacterial cell lysis or disruption. However, functional loss of membrane integrity due to depolarization or inactivation of membrane proteins may occur. Decomposition of the bacterial envelope following cell death might be responsible for observations of intracellular component leakage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Hoenes
- Institute of Medical Engineering and Mechatronics, Ulm University of Applied Sciences, 89081 Ulm, Germany;
| | - Richard Bauer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany; (R.B.); (B.S.)
| | - Barbara Spellerberg
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany; (R.B.); (B.S.)
| | - Martin Hessling
- Institute of Medical Engineering and Mechatronics, Ulm University of Applied Sciences, 89081 Ulm, Germany;
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11
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Structural membrane changes induced by pulsed blue light on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2021; 216:112150. [PMID: 33578335 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2021.112150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In a recent study we showed that blue light inactivates methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) by perturbing, depolarizing, and disrupting its cell membrane. PURPOSE The current study presents visual evidence that the observed biochemical changes also result in cell metabolic changes and structural alteration of the cell membrane. METHODS Cultures of MRSA were treated with 450 nm pulsed blue light (PBL) at 3 mW/cm2 irradiance, using a sub lethal dose of 2.7 J/cm2 radiant exposure three times at 30-min intervals. Following 24 h incubation at 37 °C, irradiated colonies and control non-irradiated colonies were processed for light and transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS The images obtained revealed three major effects of PBL; (1) disruption of MRSA cell membrane, (2) alteration of membrane structure, and (3) disruption of cell replication. CONCLUSION These signs of bacterial inactivation at a dose deliberately selected to be sub-lethal supports our previous finding that rapid depolarization of bacterial cell membrane and disruption of cellular function comprise another mechanism underlying photo-inactivation of bacteria. Further, it affirms the potency of PBL.
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Bumah VV, Cortez PM, Morrow BN, Rojas P, Bowman CR, Masson-Meyers DS, Enwemeka CS. Blue light absorbing pigment in Streptococcus agalactiae does not potentiate the antimicrobial effect of pulsed 450 nm light. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2021; 216:112149. [PMID: 33578336 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2021.112149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Recently, it was shown that Group B Streptococcus (GBS) COH1 strain, which has granadaene-an endogenous chromophore known to absorb blue light-is not susceptible to 450 nm pulsed blue light (PBL) inactivation unless the bacterium is co-cultured with exogenous porphyrin. PURPOSE To confirm or refute the finding, we studied the effect of blue light on NCTC, another strain of GBS with more granadaene than COH1, to determine if the abundance of granadaene-and by implication more absorption of blue light-fosters GBS susceptibility to PBL. METHODS We irradiated cultures of the bacterium with or without protoporphyrin, coproporphyrin, flavin mononucleotide (FMN), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) or NADH. After 24-h incubation, bacterial colonies were enumerated, log10 CFU/mL computed, and descriptive and inferential data analyzed and compared. RESULTS (1) The rich amount of granadaene in NCTC did not enhance its susceptibility to antimicrobial pulsed blue light (PBL). (2) Adding exogenous porphyrin fostered NCTC susceptibility to irradiation, resulting in 100% bacterial suppression. (3) Exogenous FMN or FAD, which strongly absorb 450 nm light, did not promote the antimicrobial effect of PBL, neither did exogenous NAD or NADH, two weak blue light-absorbing photosensitizers. CONCLUSION These results strengthen our previous assertion that an endogenous chromophore with the capacity to absorb and transform light energy into a biochemical process that engenders bacterial cell death, is essential for 450 nm PBL to suppress GBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violet Vakunseh Bumah
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Sciences, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA; College of Health and Human Services, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.
| | | | | | - Paulina Rojas
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, CA 92182, USA
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The viability of human cells irradiated with 470-nm light at various radiant energies in vitro. Lasers Med Sci 2021; 36:1661-1670. [PMID: 33486613 DOI: 10.1007/s10103-021-03250-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Blue light is known to be antimicrobial, but its effect on normal cutaneous and subcutaneous cells remains unclear. Therefore, we studied the effect of 470-nm light on the viability of adult and neonatal human dermal fibroblasts, Jurkat T-cells, and THP-1 monocytes in vitro. Each culture was irradiated with 0, 3, 55, or 110 J/cm2 of 470-nm light and subjected to trypan blue assay to ascertain viability. Further, MTT, neutral red, and fluorescence assays of fibroblasts were performed, and cell morphology visualized using bright field and fluorescence microscopy. At each dose and in each of the four cell lines, there was no significant difference in cell concentration between irradiated and non-irradiated cultures, even though irradiation with 55 J/cm2 or 110 J/cm2 slightly decreased cell count. Light microscopy showed progressive morphological changes in the fibroblasts as energy fluence increased from 55 to 110 J/cm2. Irradiation at 3 J/cm2 produced a slight but non-significant increase in the viability of Jurkat T-cells and THP-1 monocytes. In contrast, at 110 J/cm2 radiant exposure, irradiation slightly decreased the viability of all four cells. While 3 J/cm2 appears stimulatory, our finding that 110 J/cm2 produces a slight decrease in viability and engenders morphological changes in fibroblasts, suggesting that such high doses should be avoided in blue light treatments.
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Hadi J, Wu S, Brightwell G. Antimicrobial Blue Light versus Pathogenic Bacteria: Mechanism, Application in the Food Industry, Hurdle Technologies and Potential Resistance. Foods 2020; 9:E1895. [PMID: 33353056 PMCID: PMC7767196 DOI: 10.3390/foods9121895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Blue light primarily exhibits antimicrobial activity through the activation of endogenous photosensitizers, which leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species that attack components of bacterial cells. Current data show that blue light is innocuous on the skin, but may inflict photo-damage to the eyes. Laboratory measurements indicate that antimicrobial blue light has minimal effects on the sensorial and nutritional properties of foods, although future research using human panels is required to ascertain these findings. Food properties also affect the efficacy of antimicrobial blue light, with attenuation or enhancement of the bactericidal activity observed in the presence of absorptive materials (for example, proteins on meats) or photosensitizers (for example, riboflavin in milk), respectively. Blue light can also be coupled with other treatments, such as polyphenols, essential oils and organic acids. While complete resistance to blue light has not been reported, isolated evidence suggests that bacterial tolerance to blue light may occur over time, especially through gene mutations, although at a slower rate than antibiotic resistance. Future studies can aim at characterizing the amount and type of intracellular photosensitizers across bacterial species and at assessing the oxygen-independent mechanism of blue light-for example, the inactivation of spoilage bacteria in vacuum-packed meats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Hadi
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (J.H.); (S.W.)
| | - Shuyan Wu
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (J.H.); (S.W.)
| | - Gale Brightwell
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (J.H.); (S.W.)
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Tennent Drive, Massey University, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
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15
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Ailioaie LM, Litscher G. Curcumin and Photobiomodulation in Chronic Viral Hepatitis and Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21197150. [PMID: 32998270 PMCID: PMC7582680 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune modulation is a very modern medical field for targeting viral infections. In the race to develop the best immune modulator against viruses, curcumin, as a natural product, is inexpensive, without side effects, and can stimulate very well certain areas of the human immune system. As a bright yellow component of turmeric spice, curcumin has been the subject of thousands of scientific and clinical studies in recent decades to prove its powerful antioxidant properties and anticancer effects. Curcumin has been shown to influence inter- and intracellular signaling pathways, with direct effects on gene expression of the antioxidant proteins and those that regulate the immunity. Experimental studies have shown that curcumin modulates several enzyme systems, reduces nitrosative stress, increases the antioxidant capacity, and decreases the lipid peroxidation, protecting against fatty liver pathogenesis and fibrotic changes. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) affects millions of people worldwide, having sometimes a dramatic evolution to chronic aggressive infection, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. All up-to-date treatments are limited, there is still a gap in the scientific knowledge, and a sterilization cure may not yet be possible with the removal of both covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) and the embedded HBV DNA. With a maximum light absorption at 420 nm, the cytotoxicity of curcumin as photosensitizer could be expanded by the intravenous blue laser blood irradiation (IVBLBI) or photobiomodulation in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection, Hepatitis B e-antigen (HBeAg)-positive, noncirrhotic, but nonresponsive to classical therapy. Photobiomodulation increases DNA repair by the biosynthesis of complex molecules with antioxidant properties, the outset of repairing enzyme systems and new phospholipids for regenerating the cell membranes. UltraBioavailable Curcumin and blue laser photobiomodulation could suppress the virus and control better the disease by reducing inflammation/fibrosis and stopping the progression of chronic hepatitis, reversing fibrosis, and diminishing the progression of cirrhosis, and decreasing the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma. Photodynamic therapy with blue light and curcumin opens new avenues for the effective prevention and cure of chronic liver infections and hepatocellular carcinoma. Blue laser light and UltraBioavailable Curcumin could be a new valuable alternative for medical applications in chronic B viral hepatitis and hepatocarcinoma, saving millions of lives.
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MESH Headings
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/therapeutic use
- Antioxidants/therapeutic use
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/drug therapy
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/etiology
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/radiotherapy
- Carcinoma, Hepatocellular/virology
- Curcumin/therapeutic use
- DNA Repair/radiation effects
- DNA, Circular/antagonists & inhibitors
- DNA, Circular/genetics
- DNA, Circular/metabolism
- DNA, Viral/antagonists & inhibitors
- DNA, Viral/genetics
- DNA, Viral/metabolism
- Hepatitis B e Antigens/genetics
- Hepatitis B e Antigens/immunology
- Hepatitis B virus/drug effects
- Hepatitis B virus/growth & development
- Hepatitis B virus/pathogenicity
- Hepatitis B virus/radiation effects
- Hepatitis B, Chronic/complications
- Hepatitis B, Chronic/drug therapy
- Hepatitis B, Chronic/radiotherapy
- Hepatitis B, Chronic/virology
- Humans
- Immunologic Factors/therapeutic use
- Liver/drug effects
- Liver/immunology
- Liver/pathology
- Liver/radiation effects
- Liver Cirrhosis/drug therapy
- Liver Cirrhosis/etiology
- Liver Cirrhosis/radiotherapy
- Liver Cirrhosis/virology
- Liver Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Liver Neoplasms/etiology
- Liver Neoplasms/radiotherapy
- Liver Neoplasms/virology
- Low-Level Light Therapy/methods
- Photosensitizing Agents/therapeutic use
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Marinela Ailioaie
- Department of Medical Physics, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, 11 Carol I Boulevard, 700506 Iasi, Romania;
- Ultramedical & Laser Clinic, 83 Arcu Street, 700135 Iasi, Romania
| | - Gerhard Litscher
- Research Unit of Biomedical Engineering in Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, Research Unit for Complementary and Integrative Laser Medicine, and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Research Center Graz, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 39, 8036 Graz, Austria
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +43-316-385-83907
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16
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Hadi J, Dunowska M, Wu S, Brightwell G. Control Measures for SARS-CoV-2: A Review on Light-Based Inactivation of Single-Stranded RNA Viruses. Pathogens 2020; 9:E737. [PMID: 32911671 PMCID: PMC7558314 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9090737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus classified in the family Coronaviridae. In this review, we summarize the literature on light-based (UV, blue, and red lights) sanitization methods for the inactivation of ssRNA viruses in different matrixes (air, liquid, and solid). The rate of inactivation of ssRNA viruses in liquid was higher than in air, whereas inactivation on solid surfaces varied with the type of surface. The efficacy of light-based inactivation was reduced by the presence of absorptive materials. Several technologies can be used to deliver light, including mercury lamp (conventional UV), excimer lamp (UV), pulsed-light, and light-emitting diode (LED). Pulsed-light technologies could inactivate viruses more quickly than conventional UV-C lamps. Large-scale use of germicidal LED is dependent on future improvements in their energy efficiency. Blue light possesses virucidal potential in the presence of exogenous photosensitizers, although femtosecond laser (ultrashort pulses) can be used to circumvent the need for photosensitizers. Red light can be combined with methylene blue for application in medical settings, especially for sanitization of blood products. Future modelling studies are required to establish clearer parameters for assessing susceptibility of viruses to light-based inactivation. There is considerable scope for improvement in the current germicidal light-based technologies and practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Hadi
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (J.H.); (S.W.)
| | - Magdalena Dunowska
- School of Veterinary Science, Massey University Manawatu (Turitea) Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand;
| | - Shuyan Wu
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (J.H.); (S.W.)
| | - Gale Brightwell
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (J.H.); (S.W.)
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University Manawatu (Turitea) Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
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17
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Bumah VV, Morrow BN, Cortez PM, Bowman CR, Rojas P, Masson-Meyers DS, Suprapto J, Tong WG, Enwemeka CS. The importance of porphyrins in blue light suppression of Streptococcus agalactiae. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2020; 212:111996. [PMID: 32863128 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2020.111996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
It is well documented that blue light absorption by bacterial chromophores triggers downstream production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn results in bacterial cell death. To elucidate the importance of chromophores in the bactericidal effect of blue light, and to determine whether blue light absorption per se or the presence of porphyrins known to engender ROS is crucial in blue light treatment, we studied the effect of 450 nm pulsed light on Streptococcus agalactiae, also known as Group B Streptococcus (GBS) strain COH1. GBS does not synthesize porphyrins but has a blue light-absorbing chromophore, granadaene. We irradiated planktonic cultures of GBS with or without exogenous chromophore supplementation using either protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), coproporphyrin III (CPIII), Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), or Flavin mononucleotide (FMN). Quantification of surviving bacterial colonies, presented as percent survival and CFU/mL (log10), showed that (1) 450 nm blue light does not suppress the growth of GBS, even though its endogenous chromophore, granadaene, absorbs light in the 450 nm spectrum. (2) The addition of either of the two exogenous porphyrins, PPIX or CPIII, significantly suppressed GBS, indicating the importance of porphyrins in the antimicrobial action of blue light. (3) Adding exogenous FMN or FAD, two known absorbers of 450 nm light, minimally potentiated the bactericidal effect of blue light, again confirming that mere absorption of blue light by chromophores does not necessarily result in bacterial suppression. (4) Irradiation of GBS with or without NAD+ or NADH supplementation-two weak absorbers of 450 nm light-minimally suppressed GBS, indicating that a blue light-absorbing chromophore is essential for the bactericidal action of blue light. (5) Collectively, these findings show that in addition to the presence of a blue light-absorbing chromophore in bacteria, a chromophore with the right metabolic machinery and biochemical structure, capable of producing ROS, is necessary for 450 nm blue light to suppress GBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violet Vakunseh Bumah
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Sciences, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA; College of Health and Human Services, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
| | | | | | | | - Paulina Rojas
- Department of Biology, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182. USA
| | - Daniela Santos Masson-Meyers
- College of Health and Human Services, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA; Marquette University School of Dentistry, 1801 W Wisconsin Ave, Milwaukee, WI 53233, USA
| | - James Suprapto
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Sciences, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
| | - William G Tong
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Sciences, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
| | - Chukuka Samuel Enwemeka
- College of Health and Human Services, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
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18
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Enwemeka CS, Bumah VV, Masson-Meyers DS. Light as a potential treatment for pandemic coronavirus infections: A perspective. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2020; 207:111891. [PMID: 32388486 PMCID: PMC7194064 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2020.111891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The recent outbreak of COVID-19, which continues to ravage communities with high death tolls and untold psychosocial and catastrophic economic consequences, is a vivid reminder of nature's capacity to defy contemporary healthcare. The pandemic calls for rapid mobilization of every potential clinical tool, including phototherapy—one of the most effective treatments used to reduce the impact of the 1918 “Spanish influenza” pandemic. This paper cites several studies showing that phototherapy has immense potential to reduce the impact of coronavirus diseases, and offers suggested ways that the healthcare industry can integrate modern light technologies in the fight against COVID-19 and other infections. The evidence shows that violet/blue (400–470 nm) light is antimicrobial against numerous bacteria, and that it accounts for Niels Ryberg Finsen's Nobel-winning treatment of tuberculosis. Further evidence shows that blue light inactivates several viruses, including the common flu coronavirus, and that in experimental animals, red and near infrared light reduce respiratory disorders, similar to those complications associated with coronavirus infection. Moreover, in patients, red light has been shown to alleviate chronic obstructive lung disease and bronchial asthma. These findings call for urgent efforts to further explore the clinical value of light, and not wait for another pandemic to serve as a reminder. The ubiquity of inexpensive light emitting lasers and light emitting diodes (LEDs), makes it relatively easy to develop safe low-cost light-based devices with the potential to reduce infections, sanitize equipment, hospital facilities, emergency care vehicles, homes, and the general environment as pilot studies have shown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chukuka Samuel Enwemeka
- College of Health and Human Services, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
| | - Violet Vakunseh Bumah
- College of Health and Human Services, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Sciences, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
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19
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Bumah VV, Masson-Meyers DS, Tong W, Castel C, Enwemeka CS. Optimizing the bactericidal effect of pulsed blue light on Propionibacterium acnes - A correlative fluorescence spectroscopy study. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2020; 202:111701. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2019.111701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Abstract
Diabetic patients frequently develop chronic ulcers of the lower extremities, which are a frequent cause for hospitalization and amputation, placing strain on patients, their families, and healthcare systems. Present therapies remain a challenge, with high recurrence rates. Photobiomodulation (PBM), which is the non-invasive application of light at specific wavelengths, has been shown to speed up healing of chronic wounds, including diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs). PBM produces photophysical and photochemical changes within cells without eliciting thermal damage. It has been shown to promote tissue regeneration and speed up wound repair by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress, accelerating cell migration and proliferation, and promoting extracellular matrix production and release of essential growth factors. The shortage of rigorous, well-designed clinical trials makes it challenging to assess the scientific impact of PBM on DFUs, and lack of understanding of the underlying mechanisms also hinders the conventional use of this therapy. This review gives a glimpse into diabetic wound healing and PBM, and the effects of PBM on diabetic wound healing.
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21
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Masson-Meyers DS, Bumah VV, Castel C, Castel D, Enwemeka CS. Pulsed 450 nm blue light significantly inactivates Propionibacterium acnes more than continuous wave blue light. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2019; 202:111719. [PMID: 31770705 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2019.111719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Infection with Propionibacterium acnes is ubiquitous, and drug resistant strains have been on the rise as the use of pharmaceutical antimicrobials continues to engender the emergence of further resistant strains. In previous studies, we showed that treatment with blue light serves as an alternative to pharmaceutical intervention. As a part of our ongoing effort to improve the antimicrobial efficacy of blue light, we studied the effect of pulsed 450 nm light on P. acnes in vitro and compared two pulsed rates with continuous wave irradiation. We irradiated cultures of P. acnes at various irradiances and radiant energies either singly or repeatedly at various time intervals, using printed micro-LEDs, with the goal of finding the lowest combination of irradiance and radiant energy that would yield 100% bacterial suppression. Our results show that treatment with 33% pulsed light gave the best result compared to 20% pulsed wave or continuous wave. Timing irradiation to coincide with the replication cycle of P. acnes produced a significantly better antimicrobial effect. Furthermore, repeated irradiation at 3-h or 4-h interval enabled significant bacterial suppression even at lower irradiances; thus, making single irradiation at high irradiances unnecessary. Moreover, combining repeated irradiation with appropriate duration of treatment and 33% irradiation pulse rate gave optimal 100% [7 log10] bacterial suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Violet Vakunseh Bumah
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Sciences, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182. USA.
| | - Chris Castel
- CareWear Corp, 1225 Financial Blvd, Reno, NV 89502, USA.
| | - Dawn Castel
- CareWear Corp, 1225 Financial Blvd, Reno, NV 89502, USA.
| | - Chukuka Samuel Enwemeka
- College of Health and Human Services, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182. USA.
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22
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Bumah VV, Masson-Meyers DS, Enwemeka CS. Pulsed 450 nm blue light suppresses MRSA and Propionibacterium acnes in planktonic cultures and bacterial biofilms. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2019; 202:111702. [PMID: 31760372 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2019.111702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In our recent study, we showed that pulsed blue light (PBL) suppresses the growth of Propionibacterium acnes more than continuous wave (CW) blue light in vitro, but it is not known that other bacteria, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), respond similarly to PBL. The high potency of PBL relative to CW blue light makes it a suitable antimicrobial for suppressing bacterial growth in biofilms as well. Therefore, we determined if MRSA-a deadly bacterium of global concern-is susceptible to 450 nm PBL irradiation in vitro, and ascertained whether the bactericidal effect of PBL on planktonic P. acnes culture can be replicated in biofilms of P. acnes and MRSA. In three series of experiments, we irradiated P. acnes and MRSA respectively, either in planktonic cultures, forming biofilms or formed biofilms. Compared to controls, the results showed 100% bacterial suppression in planktonic cultures of MRSA irradiated with 3 mW/cm2 irradiance and 7.6 J/cm2 radiant exposure three times at 30-minute intervals, and also in P. acnes cultures irradiated with 2 mW/cm2 irradiance 5 J/cm2 radiant exposure thrice daily during each of 3 days. Irradiation of biofilms with the same irradiances and radiant exposures that gave 100% bacterial suppression in planktonic cultures resulted in disruption and disassembly of the architecture of MRSA and P. acnes biofilms, more so in forming biofilms than formed biofilms. The antimicrobial effect on each bacterium was minimal in forming biofilms, and even less in formed biofilms. Increasing radiant exposure slightly from 7.6 J/cm2 to 10.8 J/cm2 without changing any other parameter, yielded more disruption of the biofilm and fewer live MRSA and P. acnes, suggesting that 100% bacterial suppression is possible with further refinement of the protocol. In both planktonic cultures and biofilms, PBL suppressed MRSA more than P. acnes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violet Vakunseh Bumah
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, College of Sciences, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
| | | | - Chukuka Samuel Enwemeka
- College of Health and Human Services, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
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23
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Ferrer-Espada R, Wang Y, Goh XS, Dai T. Antimicrobial Blue Light Inactivation of Microbial Isolates in Biofilms. Lasers Surg Med 2019; 52:472-478. [PMID: 31536154 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.23159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Biofilms cause more than 80% of infections in humans, including more than 90% of all chronic wound infections and are extremely resistant to antimicrobials and the immune system. The situation is exacerbated by the fast spreading of antimicrobial resistance, which has become one of the biggest threats to current public health. There is consequently a critical need for the development of alternative therapeutics. Antimicrobial blue light (aBL) is a light-based approach that exhibits intrinsic antimicrobial effect without the involvement of exogenous photosensitizers. In this study, we investigated the antimicrobial effect of this non-antibiotic approach against biofilms formed by microbial isolates of multidrug-resistant bacteria. STUDY DESIGN/MATERIALS AND METHODS Microbial isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii, Candida albicans, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, MRSA, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Proteus mirabilis were studied. Biofilms were grown in microtiter plates for 24 or 48 hours or in the CDC biofilm reactor for 48 hours and exposed to aBL at 405 nm (60 mW/cm2 , 60 or 30 minutes). The anti-biofilm activity of aBL was measured by viable counts. RESULTS The biofilms of A. baumannii, N. gonorrhoeae, and P. aeruginosa were the most susceptible to aBL with between 4 and 8 log10 inactivation after 108 J/cm2 (60 mW/cm2 , 30 minutes) or 216 J/cm2 (60 mW/cm2 , 60 minutes) aBL were delivered in the microplates. On the contrary, the biofilms of C. albicans, E. coli, E. faecalis, and P. mirabilis were the least susceptible to aBL inactivation (-0.30, -0.24, -0.84, and -0.68 log10 inactivation, respectively). The same aBL treatment in biofilms developed in the CDC biofilm reactor, caused -1.68 log10 inactivation in A. baumannii and -1.74 and -1.65 log10 inactivation in two different strains of P. aeruginosa. CONCLUSIONS aBL exhibits potential against pathogenic microorganisms and could help with the significant need for new antimicrobials in clinical practice to manage multidrug-resistant infections. Lasers Surg. Med. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ferrer-Espada
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114.,Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Charlestown, Boston, Massachusetts, 02129
| | - Ying Wang
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114.,Department of Laser Medicine, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Xueping Sharon Goh
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114.,Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Charlestown, Boston, Massachusetts, 02129
| | - Tianhong Dai
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114.,Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Charlestown, Boston, Massachusetts, 02129
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24
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Chu Z, Hu X, Wang X, Wu J, Dai T, Wang X. Inactivation of Cronobacter sakazakii by blue light illumination and the resulting oxidative damage to fatty acids. Can J Microbiol 2019; 65:922-929. [PMID: 31525298 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2019-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Blue light (BL) exerts an antimicrobial effect on pathogenic bacteria. It has been hypothesized that its bactericidal activity depends upon the generation of reactive oxygen species (such as anion superoxides) and the resultant cellular damage. However, some aspects of this hypothesis needed to be tested and investigated. Thus, the work conducted herein examined the molecular impact of BL treatment on Cronobacter sakazakii, an emerging foodborne pathogen. The results showed that BL exhibited an efficient bactericidal effect against C. sakazakii. Under a sublethal BL dose, both intracellular anion superoxides and malondialdehyde (a marker of oxidative stress) contents were increased gradually. Moreover, permeability of the outer membrane was increased by approximately 50%, indicating membrane damage. Further investigation revealed alterations to cellular fatty acid profiles, with a decrease and disappearance of unsaturated fatty acids, including C18:2, C16:1, and C18:1. These data indicate that bacterial lipids, especially unsaturated fatty acids, are important molecular targets of BL photo-oxidation. The transcriptional response of bacteria to BL was also studied, and it was found that three genes were upregulated, including genes encoding antioxidants. The current study contributes towards an improved understanding of the bactericidal mechanisms of BL and highlights the importance of lipid and membrane damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaojuan Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoqing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China
| | - Jiaxin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, P.R. China
| | - Tianhong Dai
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.,Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Xiaohong Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan 430070, P.R. China
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25
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An assessment of antibacterial mode of action of chitosan on Listeria innocua cells using real-time HATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 135:386-393. [PMID: 31071397 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The antibacterial mode of action of chitosan using real-time, horizontal attenuated total reflectance, Fourier-transform infrared (HATR-FTIR) spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was investigated. Listeria innocua was treated with chitosan solution. HATR-FTIR revealed an increased lethality and substantially metabolomics response on cell components. The main changes in FTIR and their 2nd derivative spectra were at 1045 cm-1 (carbohydrates in cell wall). Principal component analysis clearly segregated untreated and treated cells. Loadings plot revealed the functional groups in cell wall, cell membrane, phospholipid and protein regions of spectrum that are responsible for the classification of treated and control spectra. Kinetic traces of the metabolomics change suggested that cell wall and cell membrane seemed to be the initial target of the antimicrobial mechanism of chitosan. In agreement with the TEM images, which showed breakage of cell wall integrity. The cell wall, cell membrane, phospholipids, proteins and nucleic acids of FTIR spectral data recorded during the cell inactivation were shown to be linked to the metabolomics cell response in the lethality rate and structure of the cells. This work clearly showed, using HATR-FTIR spectroscopy, how bacteria can change their metabolomics response substantially during the first 45 min of contact time.
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26
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Ferrer-Espada R, Liu X, Goh XS, Dai T. Antimicrobial Blue Light Inactivation of Polymicrobial Biofilms. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:721. [PMID: 31024499 PMCID: PMC6467927 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymicrobial biofilms, in which mixed microbial species are present, play a significant role in persistent infections. Furthermore, polymicrobial biofilms promote antibiotic resistance by allowing interspecies transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. In the present study, we investigated the effectiveness of antimicrobial blue light (aBL; 405 nm), an innovative non-antibiotic approach, for the inactivation of polymicrobial biofilms. Dual-species biofilms with Pseudomonas aeruginosa and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) as well as with P. aeruginosa and Candida albicans were reproducibly grown in 96-well microtiter plates or in the CDC biofilm reactor for 24 or 48 h. The effectiveness of aBL inactivation of polymicrobial biofilms was determined through colony forming assay and compared with that of monomicrobial biofilms of each species. aBL-induced morphological changes of biofilms were analyzed with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). For 24-h old monomicrobial biofilms formed in 96-well microtiter plates, 6.30-log10 CFU inactivation of P. aeruginosa, 2.33-log10 CFU inactivation of C. albicans and 3.48-log10 CFU inactivation of MRSA were observed after an aBL exposure of 500 J/cm2. Under the same aBL exposure, 6.34-log10 CFU inactivation of P. aeruginosa and 3.11-log10 CFU inactivation of C. albicans were observed, respectively, in dual-species biofilms. In addition, 2.37- and 3.40-log10 CFU inactivation were obtained in MRSA and P. aeruginosa, dual-species biofilms. The same aBL treatment of the biofilms developed in the CDC-biofilm reactor for 48 h significantly decreased the viability of P. aeruginosa monomicrobial and polymicrobial biofilm when cocultured with MRSA (3.70- and 3.56-log10 CFU inactivation, respectively). 2.58-log10 CFU inactivation and 0.86-log10 CFU inactivation was detected in MRSA monomicrobial and polymicrobial biofilm when cocultured with P. aeruginosa. These findings were further supported by the CLSM and SEM experiments. Phototoxicity studies revealed a no statistically significant loss of viability in human keratinocytes after an exposure to 216 J/cm2 and a statistically significant loss of viability after 500 J/cm2. aBL is potentially an alternative treatment against polymicrobial biofilm-related infections. Future studies will aim to improve the efficacy of aBL and to investigate aBL treatment of polymicrobial biofilm-related infections in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Ferrer-Espada
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,Vaccine & Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Xiaojing Liu
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,Vaccine & Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Xueping Sharon Goh
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,Vaccine & Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Tianhong Dai
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,Vaccine & Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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Wu J, Chu Z, Ruan Z, Wang X, Dai T, Hu X. Changes of Intracellular Porphyrin, Reactive Oxygen Species, and Fatty Acids Profiles During Inactivation of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus by Antimicrobial Blue Light. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1658. [PMID: 30546315 PMCID: PMC6279940 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial blue light (aBL) has attracted increasing interest for its antimicrobial properties. However, the underlying bactericidal mechanism has not yet been verified. One hypothesis is that aBL causes the excitation of intracellular chromophores; leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the resultant oxidization of various biomolecules. Thus, monitoring the levels of redox-sensitive intracellular biomolecules such as coproporphyrins, as well as singlet oxygen and various ROS may help to uncover the physiological changes induced by aBL and aid in establishing the underlying mechanism of action. Furthermore, the identification of novel targets of ROS, such as fatty acids, is of potential significance from a therapeutic perspective. In this study, we sought to investigate the molecular impact of aBL treatment on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The results showed that aBL (5–80 J/cm2) exhibited a bactericidal effect on MRSA, and almost no bacteria survived when 80 J/cm2 had been delivered. Further studies revealed that the concentrations of certain intracellular molecules varied in response to aBL irradiation. Coproporphyrin levels were found to decrease gradually, while ROS levels increased rapidly. Moreover, imaging revealed the emergence and increase of singlet oxygen molecules. Concomitantly, the lipid peroxidation product malondialdehyde (MDA) increased in abundance and intracellular K+ leakage was observed, indicating permeability of the cell membrane. Atomic force microscopy showed that the cell surface exhibited a coarse appearance. Finally, fatty acid profiles at different illumination levels were monitored by GC-MS. The relative amounts of three unsaturated fatty acids (C16:1, C20:1, and C20:4) were decreased in response to aBL irradiation, which likely played a key role in the aforementioned membrane injuries. Collectively, these data suggest that the cell membrane is a major target of ROS during aBL irradiation, causing alterations to membrane lipid profiles, and in particular to the unsaturated fatty acid component.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhaojuan Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zheng Ruan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Xiaoyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Tianhong Dai
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Xiaoqing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
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28
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Zhang F, Wu C, Zhou Z, Wang J, Bao W, Dong L, Zhang Z, Ye J, Liao L, Wang X. Blue-Light -Activated Nano-TiO 2@PDA for Highly Effective and Nondestructive Tooth Whitening. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2018; 4:3072-3077. [PMID: 33435027 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The application of polydopamine (PDA)-modified titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO2@PDA) as a new blue-light-activated tooth whitening material was discussed for the first time. Compared with the classical clinical whitening agent (peroxide, hydrogen peroxide, and carbamide peroxide), nano-TiO2@PDA-based treatment not only had a similar whitening effect but also showed remarkably less damage on the enamel structure. Essentially, a highly effective and nondestructive tooth whitening treatment could thus be realized accordingly. The toxicity and antibacterial properties of this material were also evaluated systematically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine, The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
| | - Chongxue Wu
- The Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine, The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
| | - Ziyu Zhou
- The Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine, The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
| | - Jiaolong Wang
- The Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine, The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
| | - Weiwei Bao
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330088, China
| | - Lina Dong
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330088, China
| | - Zihao Zhang
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330088, China
| | - Jing Ye
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
| | - Lan Liao
- The Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine, The Affiliated Stomatological Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, China
| | - Xiaolei Wang
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330088, China
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Gwynne PJ, Gallagher MP. Light as a Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:119. [PMID: 29456527 PMCID: PMC5801316 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is a significant and growing concern. To continue to treat even simple infections, there is a pressing need for new alternative and complementary approaches to antimicrobial therapy. One possible addition to the current range of treatments is the use of narrow-wavelength light as an antimicrobial, which has been shown to eliminate a range of common pathogens. Much progress has already been made with blue light but the potential of other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum is largely unexplored. In order that the approach can be fully and most effectively realized, further research is also required into the effects of energy dose, the harmful and beneficial impacts of light on eukaryotic tissues, and the role of oxygen in eliciting microbial toxicity. These and other topics are discussed within this perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Gwynne
- School of Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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30
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Understanding the antimicrobial activity of selected disinfectants against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0186375. [PMID: 29036196 PMCID: PMC5643108 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0186375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Disinfectants and biocidal products have been widely used to combat Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in homes and healthcare environments. Although disruption of cytoplasmic membrane integrity has been documented as the main bactericidal effect of biocides, little is known about the biochemical alterations induced by these chemical agents. In this study, we used Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and chemometric tools as an alternative non-destructive technique to determine the bactericidal effects of commonly used disinfectants against MRSA USA-300. FTIR spectroscopy permits a detailed characterization of bacterial reactivity, allowing an understanding of the fundamental mechanism of action involved in the interaction between bacteria and disinfectants. The disinfectants studied were ethanol 70% (N = 5), isopropanol (N = 5), sodium hypochlorite (N = 5), triclosan (N = 5) and triclocarban (N = 5). Results showed less than 5% colony forming units growth of MRSA treated with triclocarban and no growth in the other groups. Nearly 70,000 mid-infrared spectra from the five treatments and the two control (untreated; N = 4) groups of MRSA (bacteria grown in TSB and incubated at 37°C (Control I) / at ambient temperature (Control II), for 24h) were pre-processed and analyzed using principal component analysis followed by linear discriminant analysis (PCA-LDA). Clustering of strains of MRSA belonging to five treatments and the discrimination between each treatment and two control groups in MRSA (untreated) were investigated. PCA-LDA discriminatory frequencies suggested that ethanol-treated spectra are the most similar to isopropanol-treated spectra biochemically. Also reported here are the biochemical alterations in the structure of proteins, lipid membranes, and phosphate groups of MRSA produced by sodium hypochlorite, triclosan, and triclocarban treatments. These findings provide mechanistic information involved in the interaction between MRSA strains and hygiene products; thereby demonstrating the potential of spectroscopic analysis as an objective, robust, and label-free tool for evaluating the macromolecular changes involved in disinfectant-treated MRSA.
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31
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Wang Y, Wang Y, Wang Y, Murray CK, Hamblin MR, Hooper DC, Dai T. Antimicrobial blue light inactivation of pathogenic microbes: State of the art. Drug Resist Updat 2017; 33-35:1-22. [PMID: 29145971 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
As an innovative non-antibiotic approach, antimicrobial blue light in the spectrum of 400-470nm has demonstrated its intrinsic antimicrobial properties resulting from the presence of endogenous photosensitizing chromophores in pathogenic microbes and, subsequently, its promise as a counteracter of antibiotic resistance. Since we published our last review of antimicrobial blue light in 2012, there have been a substantial number of new studies reported in this area. Here we provide an updated overview of the findings from the new studies over the past 5 years, including the efficacy of antimicrobial blue light inactivation of different microbes, its mechanism of action, synergism of antimicrobial blue light with other angents, its effect on host cells and tissues, the potential development of resistance to antimicrobial blue light by microbes, and a novel interstitial delivery approach of antimicrobial blue light. The potential new applications of antimicrobial blue light are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yucheng Wang
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Cancer Center, Aviation General Hospital, Beijing, China; Department of Medical Oncology, Beijing Institute of Translational Medicine, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Laser Medicine, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Yuguang Wang
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Center of Digital Dentistry, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Clinton K Murray
- Infectious Disease Service, San Antonio Military Medical Center, JBSA-Fort Sam Houston, TX, USA
| | - Michael R Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David C Hooper
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tianhong Dai
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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