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da Cunha de Medeiros P, Nunes EA, Barcelos GRM, Perobelli JE. Genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of antineoplastic drugs at environmentally relevant concentrations after long-term exposure. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2024; 13:tfae049. [PMID: 38533178 PMCID: PMC10962016 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfae049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and methotrexate (MTX) are the antineoplastic drugs most commonly used worldwide. Considered cytotoxic, these pharmaceuticals exhibit low specificity, causing damage not only to cancer cells but also to healthy cells in organisms. After being consumed and metabolized, these drugs are excreted through urine and feces, followed by wastewater treatment. However, conventional treatments do not have the capacity to completely remove these substances, risking their introduction into freshwater systems. This could pose a risk to human health even at low concentrations. Aims Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and mutagenicity of 5-FU and MTX at environmentally relevant concentrations after a long-term exposure, using adult male rats as an experimental model. Methods Male Wistar rats (70 days old) were distributed into 4 groups (n = 10/group): control, received only vehicle; MTX, received methotrexate at 10ngL-1; 5-FU received 5-fluorouracil at 10ngL-1; and MTX + 5-FU, received a combination of MTX and 5-FU at 10ngL-1 each. The period of exposure was from postnatal day (PND) 70 to PND 160, through drinking water. After that, the animals were euthanized and the samples (liver, testis, femoral bone marrow, and peripheral blood) were obtained. Results Increased DNA fragmentation was observed in the peripheral blood, liver, and testis, altering the parameters of the tail moment and tail intensity in the Comet assay. Besides, the change in the ratio between PCE and NCE indicates bone marrow suppression. Conclusion These findings warn the adverse effects for the general population worldwide chronically exposed to these drugs at trace concentration unintentionally.
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Affiliation(s)
- P da Cunha de Medeiros
- Laboratory of Experimental Toxicology – LATOEX, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Instituto do Mar, Carvalho de Mendonça, 144, Santos 11070-100, SP, Brazil
| | - E A Nunes
- Department of Biosciences, Laboratory of Gene-Environmental Interactions in Toxicology – GENINTOX, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, XV de novembro 195, sala 614, Santos 11.010-151, SP, Brazil
| | - G R M Barcelos
- Department of Biosciences, Laboratory of Gene-Environmental Interactions in Toxicology – GENINTOX, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, XV de novembro 195, sala 614, Santos 11.010-151, SP, Brazil
| | - J E Perobelli
- Laboratory of Experimental Toxicology – LATOEX, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Instituto do Mar, Carvalho de Mendonça, 144, Santos 11070-100, SP, Brazil
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Nurudeen QO, Yusuf ZM, Salimon SS, Falana MB, Ayinla A, Asinmi MR, Oweh OT, Dikwa MA. Hydroethanolic extract of Piliostigma thonningii leaves extenuates the severity of diarrhoea in female Wistar rats. JOURNAL OF COMPLEMENTARY & INTEGRATIVE MEDICINE 2024; 21:26-37. [PMID: 38180845 DOI: 10.1515/jcim-2023-0205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Nigeria ranks second in the global prevalence of diarrhoea with most cases concentrated in the Northern-region of the country. This research explored the antidiarrhoeal efficacy of the hydroethanolic extract of Piliostigma thonningii leaves (HEPTL), locally used to manage diarrhoeal conditions in Kebbi State, Nigeria. METHODS P. thonningii leaves were screened for their secondary metabolites and mineral constituents. Using 3 standard-diarrhoea models, female Wistar rats completely-randomised into six-groups of six animals each were utilised for probing the antidiarrhoeal activity of HEPTL. Animals in groups I and II served as the negative and positive controls, whereas the rats in groups III, IV and V respectively received 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight-(bw) of HEPTL. RESULTS Six secondary metabolites and eight minerals were found in the extract, with flavonoids and calcium being the most abundant while steroids and zinc were the least prevalent, respectively. High performance liquid chromatographic analysis revealed the presence of 19 bioactive substances. Furthermore, there was a significant (p<0.05) and dose-related reduction in diarrhoea onset, water content, and wet faeces count. Similarly, the amount of intestinal fluid and average distance traversed by the charcoal-meal were decreased dose-dependently by the HEPTL with a commensurate rise in the suppression of intestinal fluid accrual and peristalsis. Acetylcholinesterase, Na+/K+-ATPase, reduced glutathione, intestinal-alkaline phosphatase and protein levels increased significantly (p<0.05) whereas superoxide-dismutase, catalase, intestinal-nitric oxide and malondialdehyde levels all fell significantly (p<0.05). However, the level of intestinal glucose was not significantly altered. CONCLUSIONS Overall, the HEPTL exhibited a profound effect in the alleviation of the severity of diarrhoea, notably at 200 mg/kg bw.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quadri Olaide Nurudeen
- Biochemistry Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | | | - Saoban Sunkanmi Salimon
- School of Biological and Medical Physics, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny, Russia
| | | | - Abdul'aziz Ayinla
- Biology Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Muhammed Robiu Asinmi
- Biochemistry Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | | | - Muhammad Ali Dikwa
- Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Federal University Dutse, Dutse, Nigeria
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Experimental Chemotherapy-Induced Mucositis: A Scoping Review Guiding the Design of Suitable Preclinical Models. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232315434. [PMID: 36499758 PMCID: PMC9737148 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232315434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucositis is a common and most debilitating complication associated with the cytotoxicity of chemotherapy. The condition affects the entire alimentary canal from the mouth to the anus and has a significant clinical and economic impact. Although oral and intestinal mucositis can occur concurrently in the same individual, these conditions are often studied independently using organ-specific models that do not mimic human disease. Hence, the purpose of this scoping review was to provide a comprehensive yet systematic overview of the animal models that are utilised in the study of chemotherapy-induced mucositis. A search of PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus databases was conducted to identify all relevant studies. Multiple phases of filtering were conducted, including deduplication, title/abstract screening, full-text screening, and data extraction. Studies were reported according to the updated Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. An inter-rater reliability test was conducted using Cohen's Kappa score. After title, abstract, and full-text screening, 251 articles met the inclusion criteria. Seven articles investigated both chemotherapy-induced intestinal and oral mucositis, 198 articles investigated chemotherapy-induced intestinal mucositis, and 46 studies investigated chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis. Among a total of 205 articles on chemotherapy-induced intestinal mucositis, 103 utilised 5-fluorouracil, 34 irinotecan, 16 platinum-based drugs, 33 methotrexate, and 32 other chemotherapeutic agents. Thirteen articles reported the use of a combination of 5-fluorouracil, irinotecan, platinum-based drugs, or methotrexate to induce intestinal mucositis. Among a total of 53 articles on chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis, 50 utilised 5-fluorouracil, 2 irinotecan, 2 methotrexate, 1 topotecan and 1 with other chemotherapeutic drugs. Three articles used a combination of these drugs to induce oral mucositis. Various animal models such as mice, rats, hamsters, piglets, rabbits, and zebrafish were used. The chemotherapeutic agents were introduced at various dosages via three routes of administration. Animals were mainly mice and rats. Unlike intestinal mucositis, most oral mucositis models combined mechanical or chemical irritation with chemotherapy. In conclusion, this extensive assessment of the literature revealed that there was a large variation among studies that reproduce oral and intestinal mucositis in animals. To assist with the design of a suitable preclinical model of chemotherapy-induced alimentary tract mucositis, animal types, routes of administration, dosages, and types of drugs were reported in this study. Further research is required to define an optimal protocol that improves the translatability of findings to humans.
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Machida M, Machida T, Kikuchi M, Shimizu A, Ida S, Tawaraya Y, Kato R, Haramaki K, Yama K, Shiga S, Hirafuji M, Iizuka K. Methotrexate mediates the integrity of intestinal stem cells partly through nitric oxide-dependent Wnt/β-catenin signaling in methotrexate-induced rat ileal mucositis. J Pharmacol Sci 2022; 148:281-285. [PMID: 35177206 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2022.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to elucidate the role of nitric oxide (NO) in intestinal stem cells in methotrexate-induced ileal mucositis in rats. Methotrexate induced the mRNA expressions of the Wnt/β-catenin target genes Wnt3a, Sox9, and Lgr5 and the Wnt-antagonist gene sFRP-1 and the protein expressions of Lgr5 and sFRP-1. Methotrexate also induced Lgr5+ cells and lysozyme+ cells. A non-selective NO inhibitor inhibited the methotrexate induction of Wnt/β-catenin target genes and Lgr5+ cells but enhanced that of sFRP-1 expression. Thus, methotrexate mediates the integrity of intestinal stem cells partly through NO-dependent Wnt/β-catenin signaling and may enhance tolerability to methotrexate-induced injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maiko Machida
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Takuji Machida
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Tobetsu, Ishikari, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan.
| | - Masaki Kikuchi
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Ayaka Shimizu
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Syunsuke Ida
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Yoshiki Tawaraya
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Risa Kato
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Keisuke Haramaki
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Kaori Yama
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Saki Shiga
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Tobetsu, Ishikari, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
| | - Masahiko Hirafuji
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Tobetsu, Ishikari, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
| | - Kenji Iizuka
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Tobetsu, Ishikari, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
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Kamiya A, Machida T, Hirano M, Machida M, Shiga S, Hamaue N, Hirafuji M, Iizuka K. Administration of cyclophosphamide to rats induces pica and potentiates 5-hydroxytryptamine synthesis in the intestine without causing severe intestinal injury. J Pharmacol Sci 2021; 147:251-259. [PMID: 34507634 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2021.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of cyclophosphamide on 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) synthesis in the intestinal tissue of rats were investigated. Rats received 120 mg/kg cyclophosphamide intraperitoneally as a single administration, and kaolin and food intake was measured by an automatic monitoring apparatus. Ileal tissues were collected at either 24 or 72 h after administration. Cyclophosphamide caused a significant increase in kaolin intake at the acute and the delayed phases and was associated with a decrease in food intake, and body weight. Cyclophosphamide had no significant effect on intestinal mucosal morphology, or inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 expression in the intestine. Cyclophosphamide significantly increased tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1) mRNA expression, number of anti-TPH antibody-positive cells, and 5-HT content in the intestine. Cyclophosphamide also significantly increased the expression of Tac1 mRNA, encoding preprotachykinin-1, which is a preprotein of substance P, and the number of anti-substance P antibody-positive cells in the intestine. Cyclophosphamide significantly increased Lgr5, Bmi1, and Atoh1 mRNA levels, which are markers for the proliferation and differentiation of stem cells. This study demonstrated that cyclophosphamide induced pica in rats, and potentiated 5-HT synthesis associated with hyperplasia of substance P-containing enterochromaffin cells without causing severe intestinal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihisa Kamiya
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
| | - Takuji Machida
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan.
| | - Megumi Hirano
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
| | - Maiko Machida
- Division of Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokkaido University of Science, Sapporo, Hokkaido, 006-8590, Japan
| | - Saki Shiga
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
| | - Naoya Hamaue
- Department of Hygienic Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
| | - Masahiko Hirafuji
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
| | - Kenji Iizuka
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido, 061-0293, Japan
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Wei X, Wu Y, Tang H, Wang B, Wang Y, Sun W, Asenso J, Xiao F, Wang C. CP-25 ameliorates methotrexate induced nephrotoxicity via improving renal apoptosis and methotrexate excretion. J Pharmacol Sci 2021; 146:21-28. [PMID: 33858651 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2021.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Paeoniflorin-6'-O-benzene sulfonate (CP-25) is a derivative of Paeoniflorin. We investigate beneficial effect of CP-25 on methotrexate (MTX) induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Plasma blood urea nitrogen (Bun), plasma creatinine (CREA), urine CREA and protein in the rats were quantitatively measured. Renal tissues were pathologically observed, and apoptosis was detected. Apoptosis related proteins and organic anion transporter-3 (OAT3) expression were determined by western blotting analysis. MTX induced nephrotoxicity and hematotoxicity in rats with abnormal levels of serum Bun, serum CERA, 24 h urine protein excretion, white blood cells, platelets, plateletcrit and abnormal renal pathological appearance. Either pre-treatment or treatment of CP-25 restored normal levels of hematological and renal function parameters, and improved histopathology in rats treated with MTX. CP-25 prevented MTX induced apoptosis of renal tubular cells, and the effect was further confirmed by its regulatory effects on abnormal expression of Bax, cleaved-caspase-3, cleaved-caspase-8, Cyt-c, Bcl-2. The other important finding is co-administration of CP-25 with MTX significantly increased MTX renal excretion in the damaged rats, and the effect is supposed to be linked with its regulation on abnormal renal OAT3 expression. Taken together, CP-25 shows well protective activity against MTX induced nephrotoxicity, and this effect is via its anti-apoptosis and detoxification properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Wei
- Blood Purification Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230022, China
| | - Yijin Wu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Centre of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Hao Tang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Centre of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Centre of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Yong Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Centre of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Wei Sun
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Centre of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - James Asenso
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Centre of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Feng Xiao
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Centre of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Chun Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Centre of Anti-Inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, 230032, China.
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Akanji MA, Adeyanju AA, Rotimi D, Adeyemi OS. Nitric Oxide Balance in Health and Diseases: Implications for New Treatment Strategies. Open Biochem J 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1874091x02014010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitric Oxide (NO) is an essential signaling molecule with diverse physiological functions in humans. The steady-state concentration and site of production of nitric oxide determine its effects in biological systems. The human cells are exposed to both beneficial and harmful effects of NO. These dual effects of NO could depend on its local concentration in the cells. Additionally, the rate of synthesis, translocation, direct interaction with other molecules, and signals contribute to the biochemical and physiological effects of NO. In this review, the biochemical and physiological role of NO, particularly in health and disease as touching on cell signaling, oxidative stress, immunity, as well as cardiovascular protection amongst others, is focused on. Therefore, this review objectively discusses the dual functionality of NO in living cells.
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Machida T, Inotani A, Shiga S, Kon S, Yanada T, Kobayashi H, Hamaue N, Hirafuji M, Iizuka K. Role of Nitric Oxide in the Change of 5-Hydroxytryptamine Synthesis in the Intestine by a Consecutive Administration of Methotrexate to Rats. Pharmacology 2020; 105:723-728. [PMID: 32694256 DOI: 10.1159/000508973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate whether the consecutive administration of methotrexate affects 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) synthesis in the rat small intestine. Rats received methotrexate at a dose of 12.5 mg/kg intraperitoneally on 4 consecutive days. NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) was given subcutaneously to inhibit nitric oxide (NO) synthase. Methotrexate moderately altered 5-HT synthesis, whereas the combined administration of methotrexate and L-NAME significantly changed 5-HT synthesis in the rat ileal tissue. These results suggest that endogenous NO has an antagonistic role in the induction of 5-HT synthesis in rats following the consecutive administration of methotrexate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuji Machida
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan,
| | - Akari Inotani
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan
| | - Saki Shiga
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan
| | - Shuto Kon
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan
| | - Takumi Yanada
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan
| | - Hiroya Kobayashi
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan
| | - Naoya Hamaue
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan
| | - Masahiko Hirafuji
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan
| | - Kenji Iizuka
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Japan
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