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Lim B, Villalobos A, Mercer JA, Crocker GH. Energetics and Basic Stroke Kinematics of Swimming With Different Styles of Wetsuits. J Strength Cond Res 2024:00124278-990000000-00477. [PMID: 39017963 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/18/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Lim, B, Villalobos, A, Mercer, JA, and Crocker, GH. Energetics and basic stroke kinematics of swimming with different styles of wetsuits. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-This study investigated the physiological responses and basic stroke kinematics while wearing different styles of wetsuits during submaximal intensity front-crawl swimming. Fourteen subjects (6 men and 8 women) completed a swimming-graded exercise test to determine maximal aerobic capacity (V̇O2max) and four 4-minute submaximal front-crawl swims at a pace that elicited 80% of V̇O2max with different wetsuits: regular swimsuit (no wetsuit [NWS]), buoyancy shorts (BS), sleeveless wetsuit (SLW), and full-sleeve wetsuit (FSW). The rate of oxygen consumption (V̇O2), rate of carbon dioxide production (V̇CO2), minute ventilation (V̇E), heart rate (HR), respiratory exchange ratio, and cost of swimming (CS) were determined as the average for the last minute of each trial. The rating of perceived exertion was assessed after each swimming bout. In addition, stroke length and index were determined from swimming pace and stroke rate. V̇O2, V̇CO2, V̇E, HR, and CS differed significantly among wetsuit conditions (p < 0.01). Respiratory exchange ratio and rating of perceived exertion also varied by wetsuit conditions (p < 0.05). However, stroke rate, length, and index were not significantly different across wetsuit conditions (p > 0.05). No differences existed between SLW and FSW for any dependent variable (p > 0.05). Results from this study suggest that swimming at the same pace without a wetsuit is the least economical, and both SLW and FSW are most and equally economical without significant kinematic changes. In addition, BS could be beneficial during training and racing in terms of less physiological demands than a regular swimsuit but not as economical as the SLW or FSW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boram Lim
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, Kingsville, Texas
| | - Alejandro Villalobos
- School of Kinesiology, California State University, Los Angeles, California; and
| | - John A Mercer
- Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada
| | - George H Crocker
- School of Kinesiology, California State University, Los Angeles, California; and
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Fujimoto T, Matsuura Y, Baba Y, Hara R. Effect of Wetsuit Use on Body Temperature and Swimming Performance During Training in the Pool: Recommendations for Open-Water Swimming Training With Wetsuits. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:407-411. [PMID: 38194956 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Open-water swimmers need to train with wetsuits to get familiar with them; however, body core temperature (Tcore) kinetics when using wetsuits in swimming-pool training remains unclear. The present study assessed the effects of wetsuit use in pool training on Tcore, subjective perceptions, and swimming performance to obtain suggestions for wearing wetsuits in training situations. METHODS Four elite/international-level Japanese swimmers (2 female, age 24 [1] y) completed two 10-km trials with (WS) and without wetsuit (SS) in the swimming pool (Tw: 29.0 °C). During the trial, swimmers were allowed to remove their wetsuit if they could no longer tolerate the heat. Tcore was continuously recorded via ingestible temperature sensors. Swimming speed was estimated from every 100-m lap time. RESULTS Tcore increased by distance in both trials in all swimmers. Tcore when swimmers removed their wetsuit in the WS (distance: 3800 [245] m, time: 2744 [247] s) was higher than that at the same distance in the SS in all swimmers. Rating of perceived exertion was higher in the SS than the WS, and swimming speed was slower in the WS than the SS in all swimmers. CONCLUSION Wetsuit use during pool training increases Tcore and decreases swimming performance. Although wearing wetsuits in training situations is important for familiarization, for the safety of the swimmers, it is recommended that they remove their wetsuit if they feel too hot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomomi Fujimoto
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
- Institute for Human Movement and Medical Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Yuiko Matsuura
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Baba
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Reira Hara
- College of Sports Sciences, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan
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Sellés-Pérez S, Cejuela R, Fernández-Sáez J, Arévalo-Chico H. Does Pool Performance of Elite Triathletes Predict Open-Water Performance? J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2023; 8:165. [PMID: 38132720 PMCID: PMC10743982 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk8040165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The capacity of laboratory tests to predict competition performance has been broadly researched across several endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to analyse how pool swimming performance can predict the result of the swimming segment in triathlon competitions and compare predictability differences based on competition level and distance. Eighteen male triathletes participated in the study. Three were ranked world-class, ten elite/international level, and five highly trained/national level. A total of sixty-one graded multi-stage swimming tests were conducted. Blood lactate was measured to calculate the following hypothetical predictor variables: speed at lactate threshold 1 (LT1), speed at lactate threshold 2 (LT2), and speed in the last repetition of the test (SL200). The following data were collected for a total of 75 races: time in the swimming leg (TSL); position after the swimming leg (PSL); time difference with the first triathlete after the swimming leg (DFT); and final race position. The race levels were divided according to participant levels as follows: world series (WS) (n = 22); World Cup (WC) (n = 22); Continental Cup (CC) (n = 19); national championship (N) (n = 5); and local race (L) (n = 5). Based on distance, they were divided into Olympic distance (OD) (n = 37) and sprint distance (SD) (n = 38). A moderate to strong positive association was found between LT1, LT2, SL200 and PSL and TSl at all race levels except for the SD CC, SD WC, and OD CC races, where no or weak-to-moderate correlations were found. The present study demonstrated that performance measured in a graded multi-stage pool lactate test can predict performance in a triathlon swimming segment. This finding is highly useful for coaches as it can help them to obtain a reliable measure of the triathlete's specific capabilities in the swimming leg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Sellés-Pérez
- Physical Education and Sports, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain; (S.S.-P.); (H.A.-C.)
| | - Roberto Cejuela
- Physical Education and Sports, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain; (S.S.-P.); (H.A.-C.)
| | - José Fernández-Sáez
- Unitat de Suport a la Recerca Terres de l’Ebre, Fundació Institut, Universitari per a la Recerca a l’atenció Primària de Salut Jordi Gol i Gurina (IDIAPGol), 43500 Tortosa, Spain;
- Facultat de Enfermería, Campus Terres de l’Ebre, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43500 Tortosa, Spain
| | - Héctor Arévalo-Chico
- Physical Education and Sports, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain; (S.S.-P.); (H.A.-C.)
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The Effects of a Wetsuit on Biomechanical, Physiological, and Perceptual Variables in Experienced Triathletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:171-179. [PMID: 36626910 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Wetsuits have been shown to change swim biomechanics and, thus, increase performance, but not all athletes are comfortable with their use because of possible modifications in motor coordination. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of wetsuit use on biomechanical, physiological, and perceptual variables. METHODS Eleven national- and international-level triathletes, familiar with wetsuit use, performed 7 × 200-m front crawl at constant preset speed twice, with and without a full wetsuit. The trunk incline (TI) and index of coordination (IdC) were measured stroke by stroke using video analysis. Stroke, breaths, and kick count, and timing (as breathing/kick action per arm-stroke cycle); stroke length (SL); and underwater length were analyzed using inertial-measurement-unit sensors. Heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and swimming comfort were monitored during the task. RESULTS A lower TI; IdC; number of strokes, kicks, and breaths; HR; and RPE for each 200 m were found in wetsuit compared with swimsuit condition. Higher values of SL and underwater length were found in wetsuit, whereas no differences were found in swimming comfort and timing of kicks and breaths. An increase for swimsuit condition in number of strokes and breaths, HR, and RPE was found during the task compared with the first 200 m. CONCLUSION Wetsuit use reduces TI and, thus, drag; increases propelling proficiency; and shows lower fatigability, without modifying motor coordination, compared with swimsuit use at the same speed. The use of a wetsuit during training sessions is recommended to increase comfort and the positive effects on performance.
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Jolicoeur Desroches A, Goulet EDB. Is a sub 7-h Ironman TM possible? Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:866599. [PMID: 36091871 PMCID: PMC9453846 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.866599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric D. B. Goulet
- Faculty of physical activity sciences, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
- Research Centre on Aging, University of Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada
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Foamed neoprene versus thermoplastic elastomer as a wetsuit material: a comparison of skin temperature, biomechanical, and physiological variables. SPORTS ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12283-022-00370-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Case Study: Comparison of Swimsuits and Wetsuits Through Biomechanics and Energetics in Elite Female Open Water Swimmers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 17:130-136. [PMID: 34343967 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
AIM The authors investigated how the Arena Powerskin R-EVO Closed Back swimsuit and Arena Carbon Triwetsuit (full-sleeve wetsuit), both approved by the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) regulations, affect biomechanics and energetics of 3 elite female open water (OW) swimmers at maximal and 4 submaximal swimming intensities. METHODS Three elite female OW swimmers (OW1 = 24 y, 1.64 m, 60 kg; OW2 = 23 y, 1.69 m, 65 kg; OW3 = 27 y, 1.63 m, 64.5 kg) were tested 1 week prior to a FINA/CNSG (China National Sports Group) Marathon Swim World Series event and 40 days before the 18th FINA World Championships 2019. Each OW swimmer completed 2 identical testing sessions, one with a swimsuit and other with a wetsuit, involving shoulder flexion power output assessed from medicine-ball throw, maximal performance and drag coefficient assessment, and an incremental intermittent swim test at 4 different relative intensities. RESULTS Estimated peak oxygen uptake was 4.4 L·min-1 for OW1, 5.6 L·min-1 for OW2, and 5.0 L·min-1 for OW3. Despite a distinct behavior observed on index of coordination for OW3, a null index of synchronization, increased stroke rate (mean difference = 2%-8%), reduced drag factor (minimum = -14%; maximum = -30%), lower energy cost (mean difference = -2% to -6%), and faster performance (mean difference = 2% to 3%) were observed with the wetsuit compared with swimsuit for all elite OW swimmers. CONCLUSION The wetsuit enhances submaximal swimming performance, and this increase is dependent on the OW swimmer's characteristics. The higher stroke rate and lower stroke length detected with wetsuit could be related to movement constraints imposed by the suit.
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Wetsuit Use During Open Water Swimming. Does It "Suit" Everybody? A Narrative Review. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1217-1224. [PMID: 34311439 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Although wearing a wetsuit while swimming, when permitted, is primarily for safety reasons (ie, to protect against hypothermia), changes in buoyancy, biomechanics, and exercise performance have been reported. This narrative review covers the benefits of different wetsuit models on performance in swimming and triathlon. METHODS A computer search of online databases was conducted to locate relevant published research until March 2021. After the screening process, 17 studies were selected for analysis. RESULTS Most of the selected studies involved pool swimmers or triathletes completing short or middle distances in a pool while using a full or a long sleeveless wetsuit. Swimming with wetsuit elicited significant improvements in performance (maximum 11%), mainly by decreasing drag and energy cost, by increasing buoyancy, and by affecting technique. Different rates of change in each factor were found according to swimming ability and wetsuit model. In addition, wearing a wetsuit was often rated as uncomfortable by athletes. CONCLUSIONS Although improvement in swimming performance by wearing a wetsuit has been reported in the literature, the amplitude of the improvement remains questionable. The enhancement in swimming performance is attributable merely to improvements in propulsion proficiency and buoyancy, as well as a reduction in drag. The extent to which athletes are familiar with the use of a wetsuit, their swimming ability, and the wetsuit model may play important roles in this improvement. More studies simulating competition and comparing elite versus nonelite athletes are needed.
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Gay A, Zacca R, Abraldes JA, Morales-Ortíz E, López-Contreras G, Fernandes RJ, Arellano R. Swimming with Swimsuit and Wetsuit at Typical vs. Cold-water Temperatures (26 vs. 18 ℃). Int J Sports Med 2021; 42:1305-1312. [PMID: 34020461 DOI: 10.1055/a-1481-8473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to compare three swimming conditions in a swimming flume with water at 26 ℃ (using swimsuit) and 18 ℃ (randomly with swimsuit and wetsuit). Seventeen swimmers (32.4±14.7 years old, 175.6±0.06 cm height, and 70.4±9.8 kg body mass) performed three bouts until exhaustion at a 400-m front crawl pace (24 h intervals). ANOVA repeated measures compared the experimental conditions. Swimming at 26 ℃ with swimsuit evidenced a higher metabolic demand (total energy expenditure; (E)), comparing to 18 ℃ swimsuit (p=0.05) and with 18 ℃ wetsuit (p=0.04). The 26 ℃ swimsuit condition presented higher peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), blood lactate concentrations ([La-]peak), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), maximal heart rate (HRmax), anaerobic lactic energy (AnL), E, energy cost (C), V̇O2 amplitude (Ap), and stroke rate (SR), but lower stroke length (SL) and stroke index (SI) than 18 ℃ wetsuit. The 18 ℃ swimsuit condition (comparing to wetsuit) lead to higher V̇O2peak, [La-]peak, HRmax, E, C, Ap, and SR but lower SL and SI. Swimming at aerobic power intensity with swim and wetsuit at 18 ℃ does not induce physiologic and biomechanical disadvantages compared to 26 ℃. The results suggested that the use of wetsuit might increase performance at 18 ℃ water temperature for competitive master swimmers. Its use is thus recommended in open water swimming competitions when the water temperature is 18-20 ℃.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Gay
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports. Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Rodrigo Zacca
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Ministry of Education of Brazil, CAPES, Brasilia, Brazil
| | - J Arturo Abraldes
- Research Group Movement, Science and Sport, Faculty of Sport Science, University of Murcia, Spain Add: ResearcherID: G-1635-201
| | - Esther Morales-Ortíz
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports. Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Gracia López-Contreras
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports. Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Raúl Arellano
- Aquatics Lab. Department of Physical Education and Sports. Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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Pla R, Leroy A, Massal R, Bellami M, Kaillani F, Hellard P, Toussaint JF, Sedeaud A. Bayesian approach to quantify morphological impact on performance in international elite freestyle swimming. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2019; 5:e000543. [PMID: 31749980 PMCID: PMC6830458 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The purpose of this study was to quantify the impact of morphological characteristics on freestyle swimming performance by event and gender. Design Height, mass, body mass index (BMI) and speed data were collected for the top 100 international male and female swimmers from 50 to 1500 m freestyle events for the 2000–2014 seasons. Methods Several Bayesian hierarchical regressions were performed on race speed with height, mass and BMI as predictors. Posterior probability distributions were computed using Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms. Results Regression results exhibited relationships between morphology and performance for both genders and all race distances. Height was always positively correlated with speed with a 95% probability. Conversely, mass plays a different role according to the context. Heavier profiles seem favourable on sprint distances, whereas mass becomes a handicap as distance increases. Male and female swimmers present several differences on the influence of morphology on speed, particularly about the mass. Best morphological profiles are associated with a gain of speed of 0.7%–3.0% for men and 1%–6% for women, depending on race distance. BMI has been investigated as a predictor of race speed but appears as weakly informative in this context. Conclusion Morphological indicators such as height and mass strongly contribute to swimming performance from sprint to distance events, and this contribution is quantified for each race distance. These profiles may help swimming federations to detect athletes and drive them to compete in specific distances according to their morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Pla
- French Swimming Federation, Clichy, France.,'Institut de Recherche bio-Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Paris, France
| | - Arthur Leroy
- 'Institut de Recherche bio-Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
| | - Romain Massal
- 'Institut de Recherche bio-Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
| | - Maxime Bellami
- 'Institut de Recherche bio-Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Paris, France
| | - Fatima Kaillani
- 'Institut de Recherche bio-Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
| | - Philippe Hellard
- French Swimming Federation, Clichy, France.,'Institut de Recherche bio-Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Toussaint
- 'Institut de Recherche bio-Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
| | - Adrien Sedeaud
- 'Institut de Recherche bio-Médicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes, Paris, Île-de-France, France
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Gonjo T, McCabe C, Coleman S, Soares S, Fernandes RJ, Vilas-Boas JP, Sanders R. Do swimmers conform to criterion speed during pace-controlled swimming in a 25-m pool using a visual light pacer? Sports Biomech 2019; 20:651-664. [PMID: 30893017 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2019.1572781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether swimmers follow the instructed speed (vtarget) accurately with the aid of a commercial visual light pacer during front crawl and backstroke swimming in a 25 m pool. Ten male swimmers performed 50 m front crawl and backstroke at different speeds (controlled by a visual light pacer) in a 25 m pool. The mean speed during the 50 m swimming (vS) was quantified from the time measured by a stopwatch. The mean speed of the centre of mass during a stroke cycle in the middle of the pool (vCOM) was calculated from three-dimensional coordinates obtained from Direct Linear Transformation of two-dimensional digitised coordinates of 19 segment endpoints for each of six cameras. Swimmers achieved accurate vS in front crawl and backstroke (ICC = 0.972 and 0.978, respectively). However, vCOM for the single mid-pool sample had lower correlations with vtarget (ICC = 0.781 and 0.681, respectively). In backstroke, vCOM was slower by 4.1-5.1% than vtarget. However, this was not the case in front crawl (1.0-2.7%). With the use of a visual light pacer, swimmers can achieve accurate mean speed overall but are less able to achieve the target speed stroke by stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Gonjo
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,Institute for Sport, Physical Education & Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Carla McCabe
- Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, Ulster University, Antrim, UK
| | - Simon Coleman
- Institute for Sport, Physical Education & Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Susana Soares
- Faculty of Sport, Centro de Investigação, Formação, Intervenção e Inovação em Desporto, and Laboratório de Biomecânica do Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Faculty of Sport, Centro de Investigação, Formação, Intervenção e Inovação em Desporto, and Laboratório de Biomecânica do Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Faculty of Sport, Centro de Investigação, Formação, Intervenção e Inovação em Desporto, and Laboratório de Biomecânica do Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ross Sanders
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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Saycell J, Lomax M, Massey H, Tipton M. Scientific rationale for changing lower water temperature limits for triathlon racing to 12°C with wetsuits and 16°C without wetsuits. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52:702-708. [PMID: 29720479 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To provide a scientific rationale for lower water temperature and wetsuit rules for elite and subelite triathletes. METHODS 11 lean, competitive triathletes completed a 20 min flume swim, technical transition including bike control and psychomotor testing and a cycle across five different wetsuit and water temperature conditions: with wetsuit: 10°C, 12°C and 14°C; without wetsuit (skins): 14°C and 16°C. Deep body (rectal) temperature (Tre), psychomotor performance and the ability to complete a technical bike course after the swim were measured, as well as swimming and cycling performance. RESULTS In skins conditions, only 4 out of 11 athletes could complete the condition in 14°C water, with two becoming hypothermic (Tre<35°C) after a 20 min swim. All 11 athletes completed the condition in 16°C. Tre fell further following 14°C (mean 1.12°C) than 16°C (mean 0.59°C) skins swim (p=0.01). In wetsuit conditions, cold shock prevented most athletes (4 out of 7) from completing the swim in 10°C. In 12°C and 14°C almost all athletes completed the condition (17 out of 18). There was no difference in temperature or performance variables between conditions following wetsuit swims at 12°C and 14°C. CONCLUSION The minimum recommended water temperature for racing is 12°C in wetsuits and 16°C without wetsuits. International Triathlon Union rules for racing were changed accordingly (January 2017).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Saycell
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Mitch Lomax
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Heather Massey
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Mike Tipton
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
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13
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Nikolaidis PT, Sousa CV, Knechtle B. The relationship of wearing a wetsuit in long-distance open-water swimming with sex, age, calendar year, performance, and nationality - crossing the "Strait of Gibraltar". Open Access J Sports Med 2018; 9:27-36. [PMID: 29503588 PMCID: PMC5825996 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s158502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship of wearing a wetsuit with sex, age group, nationality, calendar year, and performance in crossing the “Strait of Gibraltar”(14.3 km). Materials and methods A sample of 1,130 open-water (females, n=180, age 35.9±11.9 years; males, n=950, age 40.0±10.2 years) ultra-distance swimmers crossing the “Strait of Gibraltar” since 1950 was analyzed. Results Male, older, and Spanish swimmers used wetsuits more often than female, younger, and athletes of other nationalities, respectively, and the use of the wetsuit has increased during the past three decades. Swimmers with wetsuits were faster than those without. Male athletes aged 30–34 years were faster than athletes >60 years. Female athletes were younger than male athletes, and swimmers with wetsuits were older than those without. The Spanish were faster than the American swimmers and athletes from other nationalities, and the American swimmers were the oldest. Conclusion In summary, swimmers were faster when using a wetsuit, and local Spanish swimmers were the fastest and also used wetsuits most frequently. Male and older swimmers used wetsuits more often than other swimmers, and the use of wetsuits has increased in the last three decades.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland.,Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Prado A, Dufek J, Navalta J, Lough N, Mercer J. A first look into the influence of triathlon wetsuit on resting blood pressure and heart rate variability. Biol Sport 2017; 34:77-82. [PMID: 28416902 PMCID: PMC5377565 DOI: 10.5114/biolsport.2017.63737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 08/21/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of wearing a wetsuit on resting cardiovascular measures (blood pressure (BP), heart rate variability (HRV)). The influence of position (upright, prone) and wetsuit size were also explored. Participants (n=12 males, 33.3±12.1 years) had BP and HRV measured during six resting conditions: standing or prone while not wearing a wetsuit (NWS), wearing the smallest (SWS), or largest (LWS) wetsuit (based upon manufacturer guidelines). Heart rate was recorded continuously over 5-mins; BP was measured three times per condition. HRV was represented by the ratio of low (LF) and high (HF) frequency (LF/HF ratio); mean arterial pressure (MAP) was calculated. Each dependent variable was analyzed using a 2 (position) x 3 (wetsuit) repeated measures ANOVA (α=0.05). Neither HRV parameter was influenced by position x wetsuit condition interaction (p>0.05) and MAP was not influenced by position (p=0.717). MAP and LF/HF ratio were both influenced by wetsuit condition (p<0.05) with higher during SWS than NWS (p=0.026) while LF/HF ratio was lower during SWS compared to NWS (p=0.032). LF/HF ratio was influenced by position being greater during standing vs. prone (p=0.001). It was concluded that during resting while on land (i.e., not submerged in water), wearing a small, tight-fitting wetsuit subtlety altered cardiovascular parameters for healthy, normotensive subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Prado
- Department of Kinesiology & Nutrition Sciences; University of Nevada, Las Vegas
| | - J Dufek
- Department of Kinesiology & Nutrition Sciences; University of Nevada, Las Vegas
| | - J Navalta
- Department of Kinesiology & Nutrition Sciences; University of Nevada, Las Vegas
| | - N Lough
- Department of Educational Psychology & Higher Education; University of Nevada, Las Vegas
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15
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Figueiredo P, Marques EA, Lepers R. Changes in Contributions of Swimming, Cycling, and Running Performances on Overall Triathlon Performance Over a 26-Year Period. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30:2406-15. [PMID: 26808853 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Figueiredo, P, Marques, EA, and Lepers, R. Changes in contributions of swimming, cycling, and running performances on overall triathlon performance over a 26-year period. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2406-2415, 2016-This study examined the changes in the individual contribution of each discipline to the overall performance of Olympic and Ironman distance triathlons among men and women. Between 1989 and 2014, overall performances and their component disciplines (swimming, cycling and running) were analyzed from the top 50 overall male and female finishers. Regression analyses determined that for the Olympic distance, the split times in swimming and running decreased over the years (r = 0.25-0.43, p ≤ 0.05), whereas the cycling split and total time remained unchanged (p > 0.05), for both sexes. For the Ironman distance, the cycling and running splits and the total time decreased (r = 0.19-0.88, p ≤ 0.05), whereas swimming time remained stable, for both men and women. The average contribution of the swimming stage (∼18%) was smaller than the cycling and running stages (p ≤ 0.05), for both distances and both sexes. Running (∼47%) and then cycling (∼36%) had the greatest contribution to overall performance for the Olympic distance (∼47%), whereas for the Ironman distance, cycling and running presented similar contributions (∼40%, p > 0.05). Across the years, in the Olympic distance, swimming contribution significantly decreased for women and men (r = 0.51 and 0.68, p < 0.001, respectively), whereas running increased for men (r = 0.33, p = 0.014). In the Ironman distance, swimming and cycling contributions changed in an undulating fashion, being inverse between the two segments, for both sexes (p < 0.01), whereas running contribution decreased for men only (r = 0.61, p = 0.001). These findings highlight that strategies to improve running performance should be the main focus on the preparation to compete in the Olympic distance; whereas, in the Ironman, both cycling and running are decisive and should be well developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Figueiredo
- 1School of Physical Education, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; 2Department of Kinesiology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA; 3Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA; 4Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), University Institute of Maia (ISMAI), Maia, Portugal; and 5INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
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Nessler JA, Silvas M, Carpenter S, Newcomer SC. Wearing a Wetsuit Alters Upper Extremity Motion during Simulated Surfboard Paddling. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142325. [PMID: 26551321 PMCID: PMC4638342 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Surfers often wear wetsuits while paddling in the ocean. This neoprene covering may be beneficial to upper extremity movement by helping to improve proprioceptive acuity, or it may be detrimental by providing increased resistance. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of wearing a wetsuit on muscle activation, upper extremity motion, heart rate, and oxygen consumption during simulated surfboard paddling in the laboratory. Twelve male, recreational surfers performed two paddling trials at a constant workload on a swim bench ergometer both with and without a wetsuit. Kinematic data and EMG were acquired from the right arm via motion capture, and oxygen consumption and heart rate were recorded with a metabolic cart and heart rate monitor. Wearing a wetsuit had no significant effect on oxygen consumption or heart rate. A significant increase in EMG activation was observed for the middle deltoid but not for any of the other shoulder muscle evaluated. Finally, approximate entropy and estimates of the maximum Lyapunov exponent increased significantly for vertical trajectory of the right wrist (i.e. stroke height) when a wetsuit was worn. These results suggest that a 2mm wetsuit has little effect on the energy cost of paddling at lower workloads but does affect arm motion. These changes may be the result of enhanced proprioceptive acuity due to mechanical compression from the wetsuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. A. Nessler
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, San Marcos, CA, United States of America
| | - M. Silvas
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, San Marcos, CA, United States of America
| | - S. Carpenter
- Water’s Edge Physical Therapy and Wellness, Oceanside, CA, United States of America
| | - S. C. Newcomer
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, San Marcos, CA, United States of America
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Increased variability of lap speeds: differentiating medalists and nonmedalists in middle-distance running and swimming events. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2014; 10:369-73. [PMID: 25230099 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2014-0207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Previous literature has presented pacing data of groups of competition finalists. The aim of this study was to analyze the pacing patterns displayed by medalists and nonmedalists in international competitive 400-m swimming and 1500-m running finals. METHODS Split times were collected from 48 swimming finalists (four 100-m laps) and 60 running finalists (4 laps) in international competitions from 2004 to 2012. Using a cross-sectional design, lap speeds were normalized to whole-race speed and compared to identify variations of pace between groups of medalists and nonmedalists. Lap-speed variations relative to the gold medalist were compared for the whole field. RESULTS In 400-m swimming the medalist group demonstrated greater variation in speed than the nonmedalist group, being relatively faster in the final lap (P < .001; moderate effect) and slower in laps 1 (P = .03; moderate effect) and 2 (P > .001; moderate effect). There were also greater variations of pace in the 1500-m running medalist group than in the nonmedalist group, with a relatively faster final lap (P = .03; moderate effect) and slower second lap (P = .01; small effect). Swimming gold medalists were relatively faster than all other finalists in lap 4 (P = .04), and running gold medalists were relatively faster than the 5th- to 12th-placed athletes in the final lap (P = .02). CONCLUSIONS Athletes who win medals in 1500-m running and 400-m swimming competitions show different pacing patterns than nonmedalists. End-spurt-speed increases are greater with medalists, who demonstrate a slower relative speed in the early part of races but a faster speed during the final part of races than nonmedalists.
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Ulsamer S, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Lepers R, Knechtle B. Swimming performances in long distance open-water events with and without wetsuit. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2014; 6:20. [PMID: 24891942 PMCID: PMC4041346 DOI: 10.1186/2052-1847-6-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Background Existing literature showed improved swimming performances for swimmers wearing wetsuits competing under standardized conditions in races held in pools on short to middle distances. Data about the influence of wetsuits on swimming performances in long and ultra-long open-water swimming races are missing. It is unknown whether the benefit of wearing wetsuits is comparable in men and women. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of wearing a wetsuit on open-water swimming performances at the 26.4 km ‘Marathon Swim in Lake Zurich’ in Lake Zurich, Switzerland, and the 3.8 km Lake Ontario Swim Team-Race (LOST-Race) in Lake Ontario, Canada. Methods Race times of the fastest female and male swimmers competing with and without wetsuit were compared using multi-level regression analyses and analysis of variance. Results In the ‘Marathon Swim’ in Lake Zurich, wearing a wetsuit had no effect on race time regarding the gender where athletes wearing a wetsuit were not faster than athletes without wetsuit. However, the ten fastest men wearing a wetsuit (410.6 ± 26.7 min) were faster (32.7%, p < 0.01) than the ten fastest women without wetsuit (544.9 ± 81.3 min). In the ‘LOST-Race’, the top ten men wearing a wetsuit (51.7 ± 2.5 min) were faster (13.2%, p < 0.01) than the top ten women wearing a wetsuit (58.5 ± 3.2 min). Additionally, the top ten men without wetsuit (52.1 ± 2.4 min) were faster (19.6%, p < 0.01) than the top ten women without wetsuit (62.3 ± 2.5 min). The top ten women wearing a wetsuit (58.5 ± 3.2 min) were faster (6.5%, p < 0.01) than top ten women without a wetsuit (62.3 ± 25 min). Conclusions These results suggest that wearing a wetsuit had a positive influence on swimming speed for both women and men but the benefit of the use of wetsuits seemed to depend on additional factors (i.e. race distance). Women seemed to benefit more from wearing wetsuits than men in longer open-water ultra-distance swimming races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ulsamer
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Vadianstrasse 26, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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MAUGER ALEXISR, NEULOH JOSHUA, CASTLE PAULC. Analysis of Pacing Strategy Selection in Elite 400-m Freestyle Swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2012; 44:2205-12. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3182604b84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Neiva HP, Vilas-Boas JP, Barbosa TM, Silva AJ, Marinho DA. 13th FINA world championships: analysis of swimsuits used by elite male swimmers. JOURNAL OF HUMAN SPORT AND EXERCISE 2011. [DOI: 10.4100/jhse.2011.61.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Age-related changes in conventional road versus off-road triathlon performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2011; 111:1687-94. [PMID: 21210278 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1805-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The aims of this study were: (i) to analyze age-related declines in swimming, cycling, and running performances for road-based and off-road triathlons, and (ii) to compare age-related changes in these three disciplines between road-based and off-road triathlons. Swimming, cycling, running and total time performances of the top five males between 20 and 70 years of age (in 5-year intervals) were analyzed for short distance road-based (1.5 km swim, 40 km cycle, and 10 km run) and off-road (1.5 km swim, 30 km mountain bike, and 11 km trail run) triathlons at the 2009 World Championships. Independently of age, there was a lesser age-related decline in cycling performance (P < 0.01) compared to running and swimming for road-based triathlon. In contrast, age-related decline did not differ between the three locomotion modes for off-road triathlon. With advancing age, the performance decline was less pronounced (P < 0.01) for road-based than for off-road triathlon in swimming (≥65 years), cycling (≥50 years), running (≥60 years), and total event (≥55 years) times, respectively. These results suggest that the rate of the decline in performance for off-road triathlon is greater than for road-based triathlon, indicating that the type of discipline (road vs. mountain bike cycling and road vs. trail running) exerts an important influence on the magnitude of the age-associated changes in triathlon performance.
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Abstract
From the roots of cross training to the rigorous worldwide events, triathlon has become a means for physical conditioning, competition and socialization that is adaptable to everyone with a desire and commitment to participate. The novelty of athletes with limb loss competing alongside able-bodied has passed. The current expectation is that sport, including triathlon, is well within the reach of any amputee athlete with the physical ability and determination to compete. Commitment by the clinical team to the amputee athlete along with the systematic practice of prosthetic fitting, sport-specific training and accurate record keeping will not only assist today's athletes, but will establish the foundation for future amputee triathletes. This article outlines the prosthetic and training consideration for clinicians working with novice and intermediate amputee triathletes or those interested in swimming, cycling and running. In addition, prosthetic fitting and component selection and race day strategies is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Gailey
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Coral Gables, Florida 33146, United States.
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23
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Bentley DJ, Bishop D. Science and medicine of triathlon. J Sci Med Sport 2008; 11:361-2. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2008.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2007] [Revised: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 01/10/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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