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Caccamo A, Vega de Luna F, Wahni K, Volkov AN, Przybyla-Toscano J, Amelii A, Kriznik A, Rouhier N, Messens J, Remacle C. Ascorbate Peroxidase 2 (APX2) of Chlamydomonas Binds Copper and Modulates the Copper Insertion into Plastocyanin. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1946. [PMID: 38001799 PMCID: PMC10669542 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12111946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent phylogenetic studies have unveiled a novel class of ascorbate peroxidases called "ascorbate peroxidase-related" (APX-R). These enzymes, found in green photosynthetic eukaryotes, lack the amino acids necessary for ascorbate binding. This study focuses on the sole APX-R from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii referred to as ascorbate peroxidase 2 (APX2). We used immunoblotting to locate APX2 within the chloroplasts and in silico analysis to identify key structural motifs, such as the twin-arginine transport (TAT) motif for lumen translocation and the metal-binding MxxM motif. We also successfully expressed recombinant APX2 in Escherichia coli. Our in vitro results showed that the peroxidase activity of APX2 was detected with guaiacol but not with ascorbate as an electron donor. Furthermore, APX2 can bind both copper and heme, as evidenced by spectroscopic, and fluorescence experiments. These findings suggest a potential interaction between APX2 and plastocyanin, the primary copper-containing enzyme within the thylakoid lumen of the chloroplasts. Predictions from structural models and evidence from 1H-NMR experiments suggest a potential interaction between APX2 and plastocyanin, emphasizing the influence of APX2 on the copper-binding abilities of plastocyanin. In summary, our results propose a significant role for APX2 as a regulator in copper transfer to plastocyanin. This study sheds light on the unique properties of APX-R enzymes and their potential contributions to the complex processes of photosynthesis in green algae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Caccamo
- Genetics and Physiology of Microalgae, InBios/Phytosystems Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.C.); (F.V.d.L.); (J.P.-T.); (A.A.)
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (K.W.); (A.N.V.)
- Brussels Center for Redox Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Félix Vega de Luna
- Genetics and Physiology of Microalgae, InBios/Phytosystems Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.C.); (F.V.d.L.); (J.P.-T.); (A.A.)
| | - Khadija Wahni
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (K.W.); (A.N.V.)
- Brussels Center for Redox Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Alexander N. Volkov
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (K.W.); (A.N.V.)
- Jean Jeener NMR Centre, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jonathan Przybyla-Toscano
- Genetics and Physiology of Microalgae, InBios/Phytosystems Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.C.); (F.V.d.L.); (J.P.-T.); (A.A.)
| | - Antonello Amelii
- Genetics and Physiology of Microalgae, InBios/Phytosystems Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.C.); (F.V.d.L.); (J.P.-T.); (A.A.)
| | - Alexandre Kriznik
- CNRS, IMoPA and IBSLor, Université de Lorraine, F-54000 Nancy, France;
| | | | - Joris Messens
- VIB-VUB Center for Structural Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; (K.W.); (A.N.V.)
- Brussels Center for Redox Biology, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Claire Remacle
- Genetics and Physiology of Microalgae, InBios/Phytosystems Research Unit, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium; (A.C.); (F.V.d.L.); (J.P.-T.); (A.A.)
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Jardim-Messeder D, Caverzan A, Bastos GA, Galhego V, Souza-Vieira YD, Lazzarotto F, Felix-Mendes E, Lavaquial L, Nicomedes Junior J, Margis-Pinheiro M, Sachetto-Martins G. Genome-wide, evolutionary, and functional analyses of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) family in Poaceae species. Genet Mol Biol 2022; 46:e20220153. [PMID: 36512713 DOI: 10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2022-0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ascorbate peroxidases (APXs) are heme peroxidases involved in the control of hydrogen peroxide levels and signal transduction pathways related to development and stress responses. Here, a total of 238 APX, 30 APX-related (APX-R), and 34 APX-like (APX-L) genes were identified from 24 species from the Poaceae family. Phylogenetic analysis of APX indicated five distinct clades, equivalent to cytosolic (cAPX), peroxisomal (pAPX), mitochondrial (mitAPX), stromal (sAPX), and thylakoidal (tAPX) isoforms. Duplication events contributed to the expansion of this family and the divergence times. Different from other APX isoforms, the emergence of Poaceae mitAPXs occurred independently after eudicot and monocot divergence. Our results showed that the constitutive silencing of mitAPX genes is not viable in rice plants, suggesting that these isoforms are essential for rice regeneration or development. We also obtained rice plants silenced individually to sAPX isoforms, demonstrating that, different to plants double silenced to both sAPX and tAPX or single silenced to tAPX previously obtained, these plants do not show changes in the total APX activity and hydrogen peroxide content in the shoot. Among rice plants silenced to different isoforms, plants silenced to cAPX showed a higher decrease in total APX activity and an increase in hydrogen peroxide levels. These results suggest that the cAPXs are the main isoforms responsible for regulating hydrogen peroxide levels in the cell, whereas in the chloroplast, this role is provided mainly by the tAPX isoform. In addition to broadening our understanding of the core components of the antioxidant defense in Poaceae species, the present study also provides a platform for their functional characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas Jardim-Messeder
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Departamento de Genética, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Andreia Caverzan
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Departamento de Genética, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Afonso Bastos
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Departamento de Genética, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Galhego
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Departamento de Genética, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ygor de Souza-Vieira
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Departamento de Genética, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Lazzarotto
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Departamento de Genética, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Esther Felix-Mendes
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Departamento de Genética, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Lucas Lavaquial
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Departamento de Genética, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - José Nicomedes Junior
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Departamento de Genética, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Márcia Margis-Pinheiro
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Departamento de Genética, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.,Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Centro de Biotecnologia, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Ascorbate Peroxidase Neofunctionalization at the Origin of APX-R and APX-L: Evidence from Basal Archaeplastida. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10040597. [PMID: 33924520 PMCID: PMC8069737 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10040597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ascorbate peroxidases (APX) are class I members of the Peroxidase-Catalase superfamily, a large group of evolutionarily related but rather divergent enzymes. Through mining in public databases, unusual subsets of APX homologs were identified, disclosing the existence of two yet uncharacterized families of peroxidases named ascorbate peroxidase-related (APX-R) and ascorbate peroxidase-like (APX-L). As APX, APX-R harbor all catalytic residues required for peroxidatic activity. Nevertheless, proteins of this family do not contain residues known to be critical for ascorbate binding and therefore cannot use it as an electron donor. On the other hand, APX-L proteins not only lack ascorbate-binding residues, but also every other residue known to be essential for peroxidase activity. Through a molecular phylogenetic analysis performed with sequences derived from basal Archaeplastida, the present study discloses the existence of hybrid proteins, which combine features of these three families. The results here presented show that the prevalence of hybrid proteins varies among distinct groups of organisms, accounting for up to 33% of total APX homologs in species of green algae. The analysis of this heterogeneous group of proteins sheds light on the origin of APX-R and APX-L and suggests the occurrence of a process characterized by the progressive deterioration of ascorbate-binding and catalytic sites towards neofunctionalization.
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Przybyla-Toscano J, Boussardon C, Law SR, Rouhier N, Keech O. Gene atlas of iron-containing proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 106:258-274. [PMID: 33423341 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Iron (Fe) is an essential element for the development and physiology of plants, owing to its presence in numerous proteins involved in central biological processes. Here, we established an exhaustive, manually curated inventory of genes encoding Fe-containing proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana, and summarized their subcellular localization, spatiotemporal expression and evolutionary age. We have currently identified 1068 genes encoding potential Fe-containing proteins, including 204 iron-sulfur (Fe-S) proteins, 446 haem proteins and 330 non-Fe-S/non-haem Fe proteins (updates of this atlas are available at https://conf.arabidopsis.org/display/COM/Atlas+of+Fe+containing+proteins). A fourth class, containing 88 genes for which iron binding is uncertain, is indexed as 'unclear'. The proteins are distributed in diverse subcellular compartments with strong differences per category. Interestingly, analysis of the gene age index showed that most genes were acquired early in plant evolutionary history and have progressively gained regulatory elements, to support the complex organ-specific and development-specific functions necessitated by the emergence of terrestrial plants. With this gene atlas, we provide a valuable and updateable tool for the research community that supports the characterization of the molecular actors and mechanisms important for Fe metabolism in plants. This will also help in selecting relevant targets for breeding or biotechnological approaches aiming at Fe biofortification in crops.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Clément Boussardon
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, S-90187, Sweden
| | - Simon R Law
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, S-90187, Sweden
| | | | - Olivier Keech
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå University, Umeå, S-90187, Sweden
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Tyagi S, Shumayla, Verma PC, Singh K, Upadhyay SK. Molecular characterization of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and APX-related (APX-R) genes in Triticum aestivum L. Genomics 2020; 112:4208-4223. [PMID: 32681868 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2020.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Ascorbate peroxidases (APXs) are heme-dependent H2O2 scavenging enzymes involved in myriad biological processes. Herein, a total of 21 TaAPX and six TaAPX-R genes were identified from the A, B and D sub-genomes of Triticum aestivum L. The occurrence of three paralogous gene pairs with unequal evolutionary rate suggested functional divergence. The phylogenetic analysis formed four distinct clades having conserved gene and protein architecture, and sub-cellular localization. The tertiary structure analysis revealed the presence of helices and coils and residues involved in ligand binding. Transcriptional profiling of each TaAPX and TaAPX-R gene suggested their specific role during development and stress response. Modulated transcript expression and APX enzyme activity during various stress conditions indicated their role in stress response. Interaction analyses suggested their association with other genes, miRNAs and various legends. The present study reported numerous features of these genes, and may provide a platform for their detailed functional characterization in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivi Tyagi
- Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
| | - Shumayla
- Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
| | - Praveen Chandra Verma
- CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow UP-226001, India
| | - Kashmir Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
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Krishnamurthy P, Kim JA, Jeong MJ, Nou IS, Lee SI. Gene loss/retention and evolutionary pattern of ascorbic acid biosynthesis and recycling genes in Brassica rapa following whole genome triplication. Genes Genomics 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s13258-016-0455-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Kang ZH, Wang GX. Redox regulation in the thylakoid lumen. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2016; 192:28-37. [PMID: 26812087 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2015.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2015] [Revised: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Higher plants need to balance the efficiency of light energy absorption and dissipative photo-protection when exposed to fluctuations in light quantity and quality. This aim is partially realized through redox regulation within the chloroplast, which occurs in all chloroplast compartments except the envelope intermembrane space. In contrast to the chloroplast stroma, less attention has been paid to the thylakoid lumen, an inner, continuous space enclosed by the thylakoid membrane in which redox regulation is also essential for photosystem biogenesis and function. This sub-organelle compartment contains at least 80 lumenal proteins, more than 30 of which are known to contain disulfide bonds. Thioredoxins (Trx) in the chloroplast stroma are photo-reduced in the light, transferring reducing power to the proteins in the thylakoid membrane and ultimately the lumen through a trans-thylakoid membrane-reduced, equivalent pathway. The discovery of lumenal thiol oxidoreductase highlights the importance of the redox regulation network in the lumen for controlling disulfide bond formation, which is responsible for protein activity and folding and even plays a role in photo-protection. In addition, many lumenal members involved in photosystem assembly and non-photochemical quenching are likely required for reduction and/or oxidation to maintain their proper efficiency upon changes in light intensity. In light of recent findings, this review summarizes the multiple redox processes that occur in the thylakoid lumen in great detail, highlighting the essential auxiliary roles of lumenal proteins under fluctuating light conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-Hui Kang
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology (Chongqing University), Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China
| | - Gui-Xue Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology (Chongqing University), Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400030, China.
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Wang YY, Hecker AG, Hauser BA. The APX4 locus regulates seed vigor and seedling growth in Arabidopsis thaliana. PLANTA 2014; 239:909-19. [PMID: 24407512 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-014-2025-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/31/2013] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The amino acid sequence of APX4 is similar to other ascorbate peroxidases (APXs), a group of proteins that protect plants from oxidative damage by transferring electrons from ascorbate to detoxify peroxides. In this study, we characterized two apx4 mutant alleles. Translational fusions with GFP indicated APX4 localizes to chloroplasts. Both apx4 mutant alleles formed chlorotic cotyledons with significantly reduced chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and lutein. Given the homology of APX to ROS-scavenging proteins, this result is consistent with APX4 protecting seedling photosystems from oxidation. The growth of apx4 seedlings was stunted early in seedling development. In addition, APX4 altered seed quality by affecting seed coat formation. While apx4 seed development appeared normal, the seed coat was darker and more permeable than the wild type. In addition, accelerated aging tests showed that apx4 seeds were more sensitive to environmental stress than the wild-type seeds. If APX4 affects seed pigment biosynthesis or reduction, the seed coat color and permeability phenotypes are explained. apx4 mutants had cotyledon chlorosis, increased H₂O₂ accumulation, and reduced soluble APX activity in seedlings. These results indicate that APX4 is involved in the ROS-scavenging process in chloroplasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Ying Wang
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, 220 Bartram Hall, Gainesville, 32611, USA
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Suorsa M, Rantala M, Danielsson R, Järvi S, Paakkarinen V, Schröder WP, Styring S, Mamedov F, Aro EM. Dark-adapted spinach thylakoid protein heterogeneity offers insights into the photosystem II repair cycle. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2013; 1837:1463-71. [PMID: 24296034 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2013.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
In higher plants, thylakoid membrane protein complexes show lateral heterogeneity in their distribution: photosystem (PS) II complexes are mostly located in grana stacks, whereas PSI and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase are mostly found in the stroma-exposed thylakoids. However, recent research has revealed strong dynamics in distribution of photosystems and their light harvesting antenna along the thylakoid membrane. Here, the dark-adapted spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) thylakoid network was mechanically fragmented and the composition of distinct PSII-related proteins in various thylakoid subdomains was analyzed in order to get more insights into the composition and localization of various PSII subcomplexes and auxiliary proteins during the PSII repair cycle. Most of the PSII subunits followed rather equal distribution with roughly 70% of the proteins located collectively in the grana thylakoids and grana margins; however, the low molecular mass subunits PsbW and PsbX as well as the PsbS proteins were found to be more exclusively located in grana thylakoids. The auxiliary proteins assisting in repair cycle of PSII were mostly located in stroma-exposed thylakoids, with the exception of THYLAKOID LUMEN PROTEIN OF 18.3 (TLP18.3), which was more evenly distributed between the grana and stroma thylakoids. The TL29 protein was present exclusively in grana thylakoids. Intriguingly, PROTON GRADIENT REGULATION5 (PGR5) was found to be distributed quite evenly between grana and stroma thylakoids, whereas PGR5-LIKE PHOTOSYNTHETIC PHENOTYPE1 (PGRL1) was highly enriched in the stroma thylakoids and practically missing from the grana cores. This article is part of a special issue entitled: photosynthesis research for sustainability: keys to produce clean energy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjaana Suorsa
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Marjaana Rantala
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Ravi Danielsson
- Department of Biochemistry, Center for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lund University, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Sari Järvi
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Virpi Paakkarinen
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Wolfgang P Schröder
- Umeå Plant Science Center and Department of Chemistry, Linnaeus väg 10, University of Umeå, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Stenbjörn Styring
- Molecular Biomimetics, Department of Chemistry, Ångström Laboratory, University of Uppsala, Box 523, SE-75120 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Fikret Mamedov
- Molecular Biomimetics, Department of Chemistry, Ångström Laboratory, University of Uppsala, Box 523, SE-75120 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Eva-Mari Aro
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland.
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Järvi S, Gollan PJ, Aro EM. Understanding the roles of the thylakoid lumen in photosynthesis regulation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:434. [PMID: 24198822 PMCID: PMC3813922 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
It has been known for a long time that the thylakoid lumen provides the environment for oxygen evolution, plastocyanin-mediated electron transfer, and photoprotection. More recently lumenal proteins have been revealed to play roles in numerous processes, most often linked with regulating thylakoid biogenesis and the activity and turnover of photosynthetic protein complexes, especially the photosystem II and NAD(P)H dehydrogenase-like complexes. Still, the functions of the majority of lumenal proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana are unknown. Interestingly, while the thylakoid lumen proteome of at least 80 proteins contains several large protein families, individual members of many protein families have highly divergent roles. This is indicative of evolutionary pressure leading to neofunctionalization of lumenal proteins, emphasizing the important role of the thylakoid lumen for photosynthetic electron transfer and ultimately for plant fitness. Furthermore, the involvement of anterograde and retrograde signaling networks that regulate the expression and activity of lumen proteins is increasingly pertinent. Recent studies have also highlighted the importance of thiol/disulfide modulation in controlling the functions of many lumenal proteins and photosynthetic regulation pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eva-Mari Aro
- *Correspondence: Eva-Mari Aro, Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biochemistry, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland e-mail:
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