Contribution of the components of graduated licensing to crash reductions

Associations Between Graduated Driver Licensing Restrictions and Delay in Driving Licensure Among U.S. High School Students

INTRODUCTION

Some of the most vulnerable groups of teens choose to delay driving licensure (DDL). We assessed longitudinal associations between state-level Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) restrictions and DDL among U.S. high school students.

METHODS

Data from seven waves of the NEXT Generation Health Study (starting 10th-grade (2009-2010)), were analyzed in 2020 using Poisson regression. The outcome was DDL (delay vs. no-delay). Independent variables were driving restrictions (at learner and intermediate phases of licensure), sex, race/ethnicity, family affluence, parent education, family structure, and urbanicity.

RESULTS

Of 2525 eligible for licensure, 887 (38.9%), 1078 (30.4%), 560 (30.7%) reported DDL 1-2 years, >2 years, no DDL, respectively. Interactions between GDL restrictions during the learner permit period and covariates were found. In states requiring ≥30 hours of supervised practice driving, Latinos (Adjusted relative risk ratio [aRRR]=1.55, p<.001) and Blacks (aRRR=1.38, p<.01) were more likely to DDL than Whites. In states where permit holding periods were <6 months, participants with low (aRRR=1.61, p<.001) and moderate (aRRR=1.45, p<.001) vs. high affluence were more likely to DDL. Participants in single-parent households vs. both-biological parent households were also more likely to DDL (aRRR=1.37, p<.05). In states where permit holding periods were ≥6 months, participants with low (aRRR=1.33, p<.05) vs. high affluence were more likely to DDL. In states that allowed ≥3 passengers or no passenger restriction, participants living in non-urban vs. urban (aRRR=1.52, p<.05) areas were more likely to DDL, and in states that allowed only 1 or no passenger, participants living in non-urban vs. urban areas (aRRR=0.67, p<.001) were less likely to DDL.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings heighten concerns about increased crash risk among older teens who age out of state GDL policies thereby circumventing driver safety related restrictions. Significant disparities in DDL exist among more vulnerable teens in states with stricter GDL driving restrictions.

Impacts of graduated driver licensing regulations

We evaluate the impact of the Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) system introduced in Victoria, Australia as they influence both injury and fatality rates. Since 1990, the Victorian GDL scheme has undergone several modifications including the introduction of new requirements and the stricter enforcement of existing regulations. Our evaluation of the GDL is based on monthly mortality and morbidity data for drivers 18-25 for the period January 2000 to June 2017. We estimate the immediate and long-term impacts of each policy change to the GDL system. Our results indicate that several initiatives in the GDL system have had impacts on both fatalities and injuries requiring hospitalisation when differentiated by gender. In a number of cases we observe that reactions to these measures are common to both genders. These include: the signalling of the proposed GDL changes in the media, the introduction of an extra probationary year for those under 21, the total alcohol ban for the entire probationary period, and limits on peer passengers for the first year. Stricter mobile phone restrictions appear to have had no impact on injuries for either males or females although they were associated with lower fatality rates for both. In addition, we found an indication that in the period prior to the introduction of the mandatory requirement of 120 h supervised driving, there was a rise in male driver injuries possibly caused by a rush of more inexperienced learners to obtain their probationary licence.

Why do drivers become safer over the first three months of driving? A longitudinal qualitative study

Drivers are at high crash risk when they begin independent driving, with liability decreasing steeply over the first three months. Their behavioural development, and other changes underlying improved safety are not well understood. We adopted an innovative longitudinal qualitative design, with thirteen newly qualified drivers completing a total of 36 semi-structured interviews, one, two and three months after acquiring a full UK driving license. The interviews probed high-risk factors for new drivers, as well as allowing space for generating novel road safety issues. Analysis adopted a dual deductive and inductive interpretative thematic approach, identifying three super-ordinate themes: (1) Improvements in car control skills and situation awareness; (2) A reduction in the thrill of taking risks when driving against a background of generally increasing driving speed; (3) Early concerns about their social status in the eyes of other road users during the early stages of driving, which may put pressure on them to drive faster than they felt comfortable with. The study provides important new leads towards understanding how novice driving becomes safer over the first few months of driving, including how well-studied concepts of driving skill and style may change during development of independent driving, and bringing the less rigorously studied concept of social status into focus.

Can Adolescent Drivers' Motor Vehicle Crash Risk Be Reduced by Pre-Licensure Intervention?

PURPOSE

Although motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for adolescents, there is a scarcity of research addressing adolescents' lack of pre-licensure practical driving experience, which is theorized to increase their post-licensure crash risk.

METHODS

Utilizing police-reported crashes and survey data from a randomized and quasi-randomized trial (n = 458 adolescents, 16 or 17 years of age at enrollment), the impact of a parent-directed supervised practice driving intervention and a comprehensive on-road driving assessment (ODA) with feedback was evaluated on adolescent drivers' motor vehicle crashes involvement.

RESULTS

Compared with the control condition, a nonsignificant 20% relative reduction in risk was observed for the parent-directed intervention: adjusted hazard ratio  = .80 (95% confidence interval [CI] .44, 1.43); the unadjusted absolute risk reduction was 1.1% (95% CI -4.4, 7.1). Exposure to the ODA resulted in an 53% relative reduction of risk: adjusted hazard ratio  = .47 (95% CI .24, .91); the unadjusted absolute risk reduction was 5.4% (95% CI -.3, 10.7).

CONCLUSIONS

Comprehensive ODA might be protective for adolescents; however, additional research is needed.

Graduated driver licensing and differential deterrence: The effect of license type on intentions to violate road rules

In keeping with the differential deterrence theory, this article assesses the moderating effect of license type on the relationship between social control and intention to violate road rules. More precisely, the article has two objectives: (1) to assess the effect of license type on intentions to infringe road rules; and (2) to pinpoint mechanisms of social control affecting intentions to violate road rules based on one's type of driver license (a restricted license or a full license). This effect is examined among a sample of 392 young drivers in the province of Quebec, Canada. Drivers taking part in the Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) program have limited demerit points and there is zero tolerance for drinking-and-driving. Propensity score matching techniques were used to assess the effect of the license type on intentions to violate road rules and on various mechanisms of social control. Regression analyses were then conducted to estimate the moderating effect of license type. Average treatment effects from propensity score matching analyses indicate that respondents with a restricted license have lower levels of intention to infringe road rules. While moral commitment and, to a lesser extent, the perceived risk of arrest are both negatively associated with intentions to violate road rules, the license type moderates the relationship between delinquent peers and intentions to violate road rules. The effect of delinquent peers is reduced among respondents with a restricted driver license. Finally, a diminished capability to resist peer pressure could explain the increased crash risk in months following full licensing.

Young drivers and their cars: Safe and sound or the perfect storm?

Consistent with the experiences in high-income countries, young drivers remain overrepresented in road trauma statistics in low- and middle-income countries. This article pursues the emerging interest of approaching the young driver problem from a systems thinking perspective in order to design and deliver robust countermeasures. Specifically, the focus of this paper is the cars driven by young drivers. The study of vehicles' characteristics and their interaction with driving behaviour is, more often than not, considered a minor concern when developing countermeasures in young drivers' safety not only in developed nations, but especially in developing nations. Participants completed an online survey containing the 44-item Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale Spanish version (BYNDS-Sp), in addition to providing information regarding their vehicle, any crash involvement, and driving offences. Based on the vehicle model information, the assessment of vehicle safety was conducted for three safety programs (ANCAP, Latin NCAP, U.S. NCAP). Young drivers in Colombia reported a breadth of risky driving behaviours worth targeting in broader interventions. For example, interventions can target speeding, particularly as three quarters of the participants drove small-medium cars associated with poorer road safety outcomes. Moreover, risky driving exposure was highly prevalent amongst the young driver participants, demonstrating the need for them to be driving the safest vehicles possible. It is noteworthy that few cars were able to be assessed by the Latin NCAP (with half of the cars rated having only 0-2 star ratings), and that there was considerable discrepancy between ANCAP, U.S. NCAP, and Latin NCAP ratings. The need for system-wide strategies to increase young driver road safety-such as improved vehicle safety-is vital to improve road safety outcomes in jurisdictions such as Colombia. Such improvements may also require systemic changes such as enhanced vehicle safety rating scales and investigation of the nature of vehicles sold in developing nations, particularly as these vehicles typically contain fewer safety features than their counterparts sold in developed nations.

Alcohol Policies and Alcohol-Related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities Among Young People in the US

BACKGROUND

Motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are a leading cause of death among young people in the United States. We examined the relationship between states' alcohol policy environments and alcohol-related MVC fatalities among children, adolescents, and young adults under the minimum legal drinking age of 21 years.

METHODS

We used the Alcohol Policy Scale (APS), an assessment of 29 alcohol policies across 50 states and Washington, DC, developed with the assistance of an interdisciplinary Delphi panel. Using the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, we examined APS scores in relation to fatalities of people ≤20 years old from 2000 to 2013 occurring in crashes in which ≥1 involved driver had a blood alcohol content ≥0.08%. Logistic regression was used with a 1-year lag between policies and MVC fatalities and adjusted for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Of 84 756 MVC fatalities of those ≤20 years old during the study period, 23 757 (28.0%) were alcohol related, including deaths of 11 006 (46.3%) drivers, 10 212 (43.0%) passengers, and 2539 (10.7%) pedestrians, cyclists, and others. People killed in alcohol-related MVCs were predominantly male (72.7%) and older (65.5% were 18-20 years old), and 51.2% were non-Hispanic white. Restrictive policy environments were associated with fewer fatalities (adjusted odds ratio, 0.91 per 10-percentage-point increase in APS score; 95% confidence interval, 0.89-0.94). The association was observed for drivers and passengers, male and female decendents, and children, adolescents, and young adults.

CONCLUSIONS

More restrictive alcohol policies are associated with reduced alcohol-related MVC mortality among young people. Studies should scrutinize the relationship between policies and fatalities to highlight mechanisms.

Has the great recession and its aftermath reduced traffic fatalities?

An analysis of state-level data from 1984 to 2014 provides evidence on the relationship between economic recessions and US traffic fatalities. While there are large reductions associated with decreases in household median income, other policy variables tend to have additional and in some cases, larger effects. An increase in the inequality of the income distribution, measured by the Gini index, has reduced traffic fatalities. Graduated licensing policies, cell phone laws, and motorcycle helmet requirements are all associated with reductions in fatalities. Other factors include a proxy for medical technology, and access to emergency medical services (based on the percent of vehicle miles traveled in rural areas); reductions in the latter accounted for a substantial reduction in fatalities and is likely another indicator of reduced economic activity. Changes in the road network, mainly increases in the percent of collector roads has increased fatalities. Population growth is associated with increased traffic fatalities and changes in age cohorts has a small negative effect. Overall, results suggest that there has been a beneficial impact on traffic fatalities from reduced economic activity, but various policies adopted by the states have also reduced traffic fatalities.

Girls crash too: trends in single vehicle crash rates in young and adult, male and female drivers

Young adult drivers (YADs) are over-represented in crashes mainly because of their age and inexperience. Studying single vehicle crashes by age and sex may identify new approaches to intervention. In 2014, male YAD (17-19 years) crash casualty rates were 11.4 times higher than older drivers (30-59 years), compared with 17.6 times higher in 2005, and 1.9 times female YAD, compared with 2.5 times higher in 2005. Crash casualty rates involving male and female YADs are declining. Action is needed to address YAD crash casualties involving both males and females. Graduated driver licensing is a universal approach that has the potential to do this.

Prevalence and characteristics of road traffic injuries among young drivers in Oman, 2009-2011

OBJECTIVES

Studies from different parts of the world have indicated that the impact of road traffic incidents disproportionally affects young adults. Few known studies have been forthcoming from Arabian Gulf countries. Within Oman, a high proportion of the population is under the age of 20. Coupled with the drastic increase in motorization in recent years, there is a need to understand the state of road safety among young people in Oman. The current research aimed to explore the prevalence and characteristics of road traffic injuries among young drivers aged 17-25 years.

METHODS

Crash data from 2009 to 2011 were extracted from the Directorate General of Traffic, Royal Oman Police (ROP) database in Oman. The data were analyzed to explore the impact of road crashes on young people (17-25 years), the characteristics of young driver crashes, and how these differ from older drivers and to identify key predictors of fatalities in young driver crashes.

RESULTS

Overall, young people were overrepresented in injuries and fatalities within the sample time period. Though it is true that many young people in crashes were driving at the time, it was also evident that young people were often victims in a crash caused by someone else. Thus, to reduce the impact of road crashes on young people, there is a need to generally address road safety within Oman. When young drivers were involved in crashes they were predominantly male. The types of crashes these drivers have can be broadly attributed to risk taking and inexperience. Speeding and nighttime driving were the key risk factors for fatalities.

CONCLUSION

The results highlight the need to address young driver safety in Oman. From these findings, the introduction of a graduated driver licensing system with nighttime driving restrictions could significantly improve young driver safety.

Exploratory multinomial logit model-based driver injury severity analyses for teenage and adult drivers in intersection-related crashes

OBJECTIVE

Teenage drivers are more likely to be involved in severely incapacitating and fatal crashes compared to adult drivers. Moreover, because two thirds of urban vehicle miles traveled are on signal-controlled roadways, significant research efforts are needed to investigate intersection-related teenage driver injury severities and their contributing factors in terms of driver behavior, vehicle-infrastructure interactions, environmental characteristics, roadway geometric features, and traffic compositions. Therefore, this study aims to explore the characteristic differences between teenage and adult drivers in intersection-related crashes, identify the significant contributing attributes, and analyze their impacts on driver injury severities.

METHODS

Using crash data collected in New Mexico from 2010 to 2011, 2 multinomial logit regression models were developed to analyze injury severities for teenage and adult drivers, respectively. Elasticity analyses and transferability tests were conducted to better understand the quantitative impacts of these factors and the teenage driver injury severity model's generality.

RESULTS

The results showed that although many of the same contributing factors were found to be significant in the both teenage and adult driver models, certain different attributes must be distinguished to specifically develop effective safety solutions for the 2 driver groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The research findings are helpful to better understand teenage crash uniqueness and develop cost-effective solutions to reduce intersection-related teenage injury severities and facilitate driver injury mitigation research.

Tracking progress in teenage driver crash risk in the United States since the advent of graduated driver licensing programs

INTRODUCTION

This study examined U.S. teenagers' crash rates since 1996, when the first graduated driver licensing (GDL) program in the United State was implemented.

METHODS

Passenger vehicle driver crash involvement rates for 16-19 and 30-59 (middle-aged) year-olds were examined, using data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, National Automotive Sampling System General Estimates System, Census Bureau, and National Household Travel Surveys.

RESULTS

Per capita fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2012 were lower for 16year-olds than for middle-aged drivers but older teenagers' rates were higher. Mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates in 2008 were higher for teenagers than for middle-aged drivers and higher for 16-17year-olds than for older teenagers. In 1996-2012, teenagers' per capita fatal and police-reported crash rates declined sharply, especially for 16-17year-olds, and more so than for middle-aged drivers. Substantial declines also occurred in teenagers' mileage-based fatal and police-reported crash rates from 1995-96 to 2008, generally more so than for middle-aged drivers. Regarding factors in fatal crashes in 1996 and 2012, proportions of young teenagers' crashes occurring at night and with multiple teenage passengers declined, more so than among older teenagers and middle-aged drivers. The proportion of fatally injured drivers who had been drinking declined for teenagers but changed little for middle-aged drivers. Improvements were not apparent in rates of driver errors or speeding among teenage drivers in fatal crashes.

CONCLUSIONS

Teenage drivers' crash risk dropped during the period of implementation of GDL laws, especially fatal crash types targeted by GDL. However, teenagers' crash risk remains high, and important crash factors remain unaddressed by GDL.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Although this study was not designed to examine the role of GDL, the results are consistent with the increased presence of such laws. More gains are achievable if states strengthen their laws.

The driver, the road, the rules … and the rest? A systems-based approach to young driver road safety

The persistent overrepresentation of young drivers in road crashes is universally recognised. A multitude of factors influencing their behaviour and safety have been identified through methods including crash analyses, simulated and naturalistic driving studies, and self-report measures. Across the globe numerous, diverse, countermeasures have been implemented; the design of the vast majority of these has been informed by a driver-centric approach. An alternative approach gaining popularity in transport safety is the systems approach which considers not only the characteristics of the individual, but also the decisions and actions of other actors within the road transport system, along with the interactions amongst them. This paper argues that for substantial improvements to be made in young driver road safety, what has been learnt from driver-centric research needs to be integrated into a systems approach, thus providing a holistic appraisal of the young driver road safety problem. Only then will more effective opportunities and avenues for intervention be realised.

Graduated Driver Licensing: An international review

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) aims to gradually increase the exposure of new drivers to more complex driving situations and typically consists of learner, provisional and open licence phases. The first phase, the learner licence, is designed to allow novice drivers to obtain practical driving experience in lower risk situations. The learner licence can delay licensure, encourage novice drivers to learn under supervision, mandate the number of hours of practice required to progress to the next phase and encourage parental involvement. The second phase, the provisional licence, establishes various driving restrictions and thereby reduces exposure to situations of higher risk, such as driving at night, with passengers or after drinking alcohol. Parental involvement with a GDL system appears essential in helping novices obtain sufficient practice and in enforcing compliance with restrictions once the new driver obtains a provisional licence. Given the significant number of young drivers involved in crashes within Oman, GDL is one countermeasure that may be beneficial in reducing crash risk and involvement for this group.

Analysis of factors associated with injury severity in crashes involving young New Zealand drivers

Young people are a risk to themselves and other road users, as motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of their death. A thorough understanding of the most important factors associated with injury severity in crashes involving young drivers is important for designing well-targeted restrictive measures within youth-oriented road safety programs. The current study estimates discrete choice models of injury severity of crashes involving young drivers conditional on these crashes having occurred. The analysis examined a comprehensive set of single-vehicle and two-vehicle crashes involving at least one 15-24 year-old driver in New Zealand between 2002 and 2011 that resulted in minor, serious or fatal injuries. A mixed logit model accounting for heterogeneity and heteroscedasticity in the propensity to injury severity outcomes and for correlation between serious and fatal injuries proved a better fit than a binary and a generalized ordered logit. Results show that the young drivers' behavior, the presence of passengers and the involvement of vulnerable road users were the most relevant factors associated with higher injury severity in both single-vehicle and two-vehicle crashes. Seatbelt non-use, inexperience and alcohol use were the deadliest behavioral factors in single-vehicle crashes, while fatigue, reckless driving and seatbelt non-use were the deadliest factors in two-vehicle crashes. The presence of passengers in the young drivers' vehicle, and in particular a combination of males and females, dramatically increased the probability of serious and fatal injuries. The involvement of vulnerable road users, in particular on rural highways and open roads, considerably amplified the probability of higher crash injury severity.

Parental perceptions of the learner driver log book system in two Australian states

OBJECTIVE

Though many jurisdictions internationally now require learner drivers to complete a specified number of hours of supervised driving practice before being able to drive unaccompanied, very few require learner drivers to complete a log book to record this practice and then present it to the licensing authority. Learner drivers in most Australian jurisdictions must complete a log book that records their practice, thereby confirming to the licensing authority that they have met the mandated hours of practice requirement. These log books facilitate the management and enforcement of minimum supervised hours of driving requirements.

METHOD

Parents of learner drivers in 2 Australian states, Queensland and New South Wales, completed an online survey assessing a range of factors, including their perceptions of the accuracy of their child's learner log book and the effectiveness of the log book system.

RESULTS

The study indicates that the large majority of parents believe that their child's learner log book is accurate. However, they generally report that the log book system is only moderately effective as a system to measure the number of hours of supervised practice a learner driver has completed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest the presence of a paradox, with many parents possibly believing that others are not as diligent in the use of log books as they are or that the system is too open to misuse. Given that many parents report that their child's log book is accurate, this study has important implications for the development and ongoing monitoring of hours of practice requirements in graduated driver licensing systems.

Critical opportunities for public health law: a call for action

Although legal interventions are responsible for many sentinel public health achievements, law is underutilized as a tool for advancing population health. Our purpose was to identify critical opportunities for public health lawmaking. We articulated key criteria and illustrated their use with 5 examples. These opportunities involve significant health problems that are potentially amenable to change through law and for which an effective legal intervention is available: optimizing graduated driver licensing laws, increasing tax rates on alcoholic beverages, regulating sodium in foods, enacting laws to facilitate reversal of opioid overdoses, and improving mental health interventions in the college setting. We call for a national conversation about critical opportunities for public health law to advance evidence-based policymaking.

Graduated driver license nighttime compliance in U.S. teen drivers involved in fatal motor vehicle crashes

BACKGROUND

Examination of teen driver compliance with graduated driver licensing (GDL) laws could be instrumental in identifying factors associated with persistently high motor vehicle mortality rates.

METHODS

Fatality analysis reporting system (FARS) data from the years 2006 to 2009 were used in this nation-wide cross-sectional study of drivers covered by a state nighttime GDL law (n=3492). A new definition of weekend, based on the school night in relation to the teenage social landscape, redefined Friday night as a weekend night and Sunday night as a weekday/school night and compared it to previous weekend definitions. Multiple logistic regression was used to examine independent effects of demographic, behavioral, environmental, contextual, and other factors on compliance with nighttime GDL laws. All analyses were performed in Stata version 11.

RESULTS

Given coverage under nighttime GDL laws, drivers aged 15-17 years were non-compliant in 14.9% of the fatal MVCs in which they were involved, and nearly one-fifth (18.8%) of all fatalities aged 15-17 years were associated with non-compliance. Mortality risk was 10% higher using a revised social (school night) versus traditional (Sat-Sun) weekend definitions. In multivariable analysis, drivers non-compliant with nighttime GDL laws were more likely to be drinking (OR=4.97, 3.85-6.40), unbelted (OR=1.58, 1.25-1.99), driving on the weekend (OR=1.82, 1.47-2.24), and killed (OR=1.31, 1.04-1.65).

CONCLUSION

GDL non-compliance contributes to teen motor vehicle mortality. Legislative and enforcement efforts targeting non-school night driving, seatbelt nonuse and alcohol have potential to further reduce teen driving mortality.

Effect of glare on night time driving in alcoholic versus non-alcoholic professional drivers

Context:

The use of alcohol during nighttime driving may affect recovery from glare leading to increased traffic accidents.

Objective:

To compare the glare recovery time in alcoholic versus non-alcoholic drivers.

Materials and Methods:

Alcoholic (n = 25) and non-alcoholic drivers (n = 25) were subjected to glare recovery test and they also filled a questionnaire about the nighttime driving.

Results:

The glare recovery time got prolonged in alcoholic drivers and they also complained of more problems during nighttime driving as compared to non-alcoholic drivers.

Conclusions:

The use of alcohol delays recovery from glare during nighttime driving. This can have considerable implications for developing countries in improving regulations for driving licensing.

New Jersey's license plate decal requirement for graduated driver licenses: attitudes of parents and teenagers, observed decal use, and citations for teenage driving violations

OBJECTIVES

On May 1, 2010, New Jersey implemented a law requiring teenagers with learner's permits or probationary licenses to display reflective decals on the front and rear license plates when they drive. The current study examined attitudes of parents and teenagers toward this requirement, use of decals, and reported violations and police enforcement of the graduated driver license law.

METHOD

Statewide telephone surveys of representative samples of parents and teenagers were conducted in February to April 2010 and March to June 2011. Use of decals among probationary license holders was observed at 4 high schools in fall 2010 and in spring 2011 and hand-out surveys were distributed. Data on citations issued for violations of the graduated driver license law were obtained.

RESULTS

When interviewed in spring 2011, a large majority of parents of probationary license holders, parents of learner's permit holders, and teenagers with probationary licenses disapproved of decals for probationary licenses. About two thirds of both sets of parents and about half of teenagers disapproved of decals for learner's permits. Support for decals for both license types declined significantly from 2010 to 2011. For parents and teenagers alike, opposition was mainly attributed to concern about identifying and/or targeting teenage drivers by other drivers, predators, or police. In 2011, 77 percent of parents of probationary license holders said that their teenagers had decals for the vehicles driven most often; 46 percent said their teenagers always used decals. Fifty-six percent of parents of learner's permit holders said that their teenagers had decals for the vehicles driven most often; 37 percent said that their teenagers always used decals. Teenagers' reported violations of license restrictions either increased or were similar in 2011 compared to 2010. Observed rates of decal use by probationary license holders at high schools in spring 2011 ranged from 24 to 64 percent. The number of statewide citations for teenage licensing law violations doubled in the year after the decal requirement took effect compared to the prior year. Excluding decal violations, citations increased by 52 percent.

CONCLUSIONS

Early examination of New Jersey's decal requirement found widespread opposition, primarily due to concerns about identifying/targeting teenage drivers, though first-hand reports of such incidents were very rare. Many teenagers do not use the decals. Increased issuance of citations for violations of the teenage licensing law suggests that decals are facilitating police enforcement. However, based on teenagers' self-reports, the requirement does not appear to have achieved the ultimate goal of increased compliance.

Factors associated with adolescents' propensity to drive with multiple passengers and to engage in risky driving behaviors

PURPOSE

Research shows that parenting factors and individual difference variables, such as sensation seeking (SS) and risk perceptions (RPs), are associated with increased motor vehicle crash risk for young drivers. The presence of peer passengers is also known to be associated with increased crash risk. However, as previous studies did not study these factors concurrently, less is known about the factors that are associated with driving with peer passengers and if peer passengers may mediate the effect of parenting and individual difference variables on adolescents' engagement in risky driving behavior.

METHODS

We examined predictors of driving with multiple passengers (DWMPs) and explored it as a potential mediator of pathways from three factors: (1) SS, (2) RPs, and (3) Parental monitoring and rule-setting to risky driving behaviors in a convenience sample of 198 adolescent drivers using a cross-sectional Web-based survey.

RESULTS

Findings indicate that both stronger RPs and perceiving parents as strong monitors and rule setters were associated with less engagement in risky driving, whereas greater SS was associated with more engagement in risky driving; RPs, monitoring, and SS were also significantly associated with DWMPs in these same directions. DWMPs partially mediated the effect of these risk factors on risky driving behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

Results inform theory and policy by examining factors associated with risk taking in the context of adolescent driving. Interventions can be developed to complement graduated driver licensing laws by targeting individual difference variables and decreasing opportunities for peer passenger carriage.

Motor vehicle fatal crash profiles of 13-15-year-olds

OBJECTIVE

The goal was to provide a description of fatal crashes involving 13-15-year-old drivers and passengers.

METHODS

Information was obtained from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System for 2005-2009.

RESULTS

The 1,994 passenger deaths during the 2005-2009 period far exceeded the number of driver deaths (299) or the number of drivers in fatal crashes (744). Passenger deaths occurring with teenage drivers, particularly 16-17-year-olds, increased with passenger age. Most 13-15-year-old drivers in crashes were driving either with no license or permit (63%), or with a permit but without required adult presence (10 percent). Fatal crashes involving illegal driving were most likely to involve high-risk actions such as speeding and nonuse of belts. Supervised learners were few in number (about 12 per year) and had the lowest rates of high-risk actions.

CONCLUSIONS

The main issues for 13-15-year-olds' motor vehicle deaths are passenger deaths and driving without a license or adult supervision.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

Parents, pediatricians, and others need to recognize the increase in motor vehicle occupant deaths that occurs in the early teen years.

Early driving experience and influence on risk perception in young rural people

Young people, particularly males and those from a rural area, are over represented in road crashes; this occurs in vehicle dependent countries around the world, including Australia. The attitudes, experiences and behaviours of young drivers are some of the key factors which affect their potential to have an early on road driving experience that is crash free. This paper considers the views of young people, some of whom were brought up on rural properties, and had significant, responsible roles in agricultural work, including task related driving from a very early age. This early responsibility and associated awareness of risk of injury in farm related tasks can affect risk perception and impact on later risk taking behaviours. Ten focus groups were conducted with young people attending schools in four towns in rural New South Wales, Australia. These were recorded and analysed using qualitative methodology. The results indicate that risk factors in driving, on and off road, are clearly identified and understood; the majority of young people in rural areas are not "high" risk takers or sensation seekers. They also indicate that, in rural NSW, early vehicle handling, before the age for obtaining a license for driving on roads, is customary practice within the community. Attitudes towards speeding, however, reflect that it is tolerable behaviour, and almost inevitable, and often not considered to be risky. Drink driving is considered more risky, and less acceptable, at both the personal and community levels. Future intervention strategies to reduce crash rates in young rural drivers should aim to address the attitudes and actions associated with speeding on rural roads.

National evaluation of the effect of graduated driver licensing laws on teenager fatality and injury crashes

PROBLEM

Automobile crashes remain a prominent cause of death and injury for teenagers in the United States. While it is generally agreed that graduated drivers licensing (GDL) influences crash rates, it is unclear which components have the strongest effect on any specific types of crashes.

METHOD

We analyze the relative effect of different stages of GDL on teenage fatal and injury crash risk via a negative binomial generalized linear model with random state effects. Overall, nighttime, and crashes with multiple teenage passengers are considered.

RESULTS

The strongest effects are seen by 16-year-olds, for which a strict permit stage is associated with a 58% reduction in fatal crash risk over a lenient permit stage. Similar reductions are seen for injury crashes. The intermediate stage, involving nighttime and passenger restrictions, is associated with a 44% reduction in fatalities but has relatively little effect on injury crashes. The strongest effects are generally seen for passenger crashes, followed by nighttime, and then overall crashes.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

This study identifies stronger relationships between GDL and crash risk than has previously been discovered and captures the relative effects of permit and intermediate licensing restrictions, two high-level components of GDL which differ in intent and implementation.

The contribution of perceived parental and familial characteristics to attitudes toward accompanied driving among young drivers

One of the main requirements of the graduated driving licensing system in Israel is that new drivers be accompanied by an experienced driver (usually one of their parents) for the first three months after receipt of their license. The current series of studies examined the associations between young drivers' attitudes toward accompanied driving (ATAD) and their perception of their parents' driving styles and parenting modes, as well as dynamic of their family. Young drivers completed questionnaires assessing their ATAD, and either perceived parental driving style (Study 1, n=100), perceived parenting style (Study 2, n=120), or perceived family dynamic (Study 3, n=254). The results indicated significant associations between the young drivers' ATAD of tension, relatedness, avoidance, disapproval, and anxiety, and their own perceptions of the characteristic driving styles of their parents (risky, anxious, angry, and careful). They also indicated significant relationship between youngsters' ATAD and their perceptions of their parents' parenting modes (responsive, demanding, and autonomy-granting). Finally, the results indicated significant negative associations between ATAD of tension, avoidance, disapproval, and anxiety, and family cohesion and adaptability, and a positive association between these two and relatedness. The results are discussed in respect to the relationship between the parental model and the young drivers' ATAD in particular, and risk management in general, and practical implications of these results are offered.

"The little squealer" or "the virtual guardian angel"? Young drivers' and their parents' perspective on using a driver monitoring technology and its implications for parent-young driver communication

INTRODUCTION

In-vehicle driving monitoring technologies have the potential to enable young drivers to learn from self-assessment. However, their use is largely dependent on parental involvement.

METHOD

A total of 79 interviews were conducted with young drivers and parents regarding this technology and its use. Most had the experience of having an in-vehicle data recorder installed in the vehicle driven by the young drivers. Parents and the young drivers expressed both appreciation as well as reservations about its potential as a means to enhance the driving safety of young drivers.

RESULTS

A surprising finding was that some parents did not check the feedback and said they relied on the young driver to do so. Main concerns related to privacy, parent-young driver relationship, self-esteem and confidence, constructive use of the feedback data, and the limitations of the documentation that can be done by the technology.

CONCLUSIONS

Providing parents and young drivers with a support system and tools to discuss and utilize the feedback are underscored. Challenges include addressing the invasion of young drivers' privacy and gender differences, and using the monitoring-capacity of the technology to enhance safe driving practices. Implications for programs to enhance communication and a dialogical approach between parents and young drivers are discussed.

Views of parents of teenagers about licensing policies: a national survey

OBJECTIVE

During the past two decades, many changes in licensing policies have been made in U.S. states, and more are being discussed. The views of parents of teenagers can inform debates about what licensing provisions should be considered and how well they will be received. The objective was to obtain the views of a nationally representative sample of parents of teenagers on a wide range of licensing practices.

METHODS

Parents were interviewed via the internet in early 2010. Participants were 1226 parents of 15- to 18-year-olds drawn from a nationally representative panel of U.S. households recruited using probability-based sampling. The panel included cell phone-only households, and Internet access was provided to those without it. Weighting procedures were applied to ensure that participants reflect the national population.

RESULTS

Parents generally favored licensing policies that are as strong as or stronger than exist in any U.S. jurisdiction, including higher permit and licensing ages, long learner periods with high practice hour requirements, plus strong and long-lasting night and passenger restrictions. The majority of parents approved of tougher driving tests, including a test to graduate to full license status (75%), enhanced penalties for traffic violations (94%) and violations of graduated licensing restrictions (78%), cell phone and texting bans (96-98%), and, to a somewhat lesser extent, license status identifiers (decals) on vehicles (65%) and the application of graduated licensing rules to novice drivers 18 and older (61%). Parents in the Northeast were significantly more supportive of older learner's permit and restricted driving ages than parents in other regions, and parents in the West were more supportive of strong passenger restrictions.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that many parents will support comprehensive licensing policies. Many of these policies are known to reduce teenage crash involvement. For others, research evidence of their effects is lacking and needs to be established.

Adolescents and driving: a position paper of the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine

Motor vehicle crashes continue to be the leading cause of mortality and severe morbidity among adolescents and young adults. All states have changed their drivers' licensure laws to make the process of obtaining a license more protracted and focused on the development of safe driving skills. Health care providers who counsel children and adolescents should actively address safe driving with them, and also involve their parents in this discussion. Additionally, they should also advocate for strict and uniform graduated licensure laws.

Crash involvement during the different phases of the New Zealand Graduated Driver Licensing System (GDLS)

INTRODUCTION

The New Zealand Graduated Driver Licensing System (GDLS) is designed to allow novice drivers to gain driving experience under conditions of reduced risk.

METHOD

To examine the effectiveness of the GDLS, an analysis of how the crash involvement of novice drivers changes as drivers move through the GDLS was undertaken. Crash profiles were created by data matching the New Zealand license and crash databases, covering a time period from 1999-2006.

RESULTS

The crash profiles show that the initial learner period of the GDLS is relatively safe and the time at which novice drivers have the highest rate of crash involvement is during the first few months of solo driving. Analysis using logistic regression also showed an effect of age and gender, with higher crash involvement associated with younger drivers and males. In addition, individuals who gained a full license within 12-18 months of holding a restricted license, due to completion of a time-discount associated educational program, had a higher level of involvement in crashes than individuals who gained a full license after 18 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The crash profiles provide an insight into the crash risk associated with different phases of the New Zealand GDLS.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

Increasing the age at which drivers first begin to solo drive and the removal of the time-discount associated with completion of an educational program should be considered.

Required hours of practice for learner drivers: a comparison between two Australian jurisdictions

PROBLEM

This study considers whether requiring learner drivers to complete a set number of hours while on a learner license affects the amount of hours of supervised practice that they undertake. It compares the amount of practice that learners in Queensland and New South Wales report undertaking. At the time the study was conducted, learner drivers in New South Wales were required to complete 50 hours of supervised practice while those from Queensland were not.

METHOD

Participants were approached outside driver licensing centers after they had just completed their practical driving test to obtain their provisional (intermediate) license. Those agreeing to participate were interviewed over the phone later and asked a range of questions to obtain information including socio-demographic details and amount of supervised practice completed.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference in the amount of practice that learners reported undertaking. Participants from New South Wales reported completing a significantly greater amount of practice (M=73.3 hours, sd=29.12 hours) on their learner license than those from Queensland (M=64.1 hours, sd=51.05 hours). However, the distribution of hours of practice among the Queensland participants was bimodal in nature. Participants from Queensland reported either completing much less or much more practice than the New South Wales average.

SUMMARY

While it appears that the requirement that learner drivers complete a set number of hours may increase the average amount of hours of practice obtained, it may also serve to discourage drivers from obtaining additional practice, over and above the required hours.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

The results of this study suggest that the implications of requiring learner drivers to complete a set number of hours of supervised practice are complex. In some cases, policy makers may inadvertently limit the amount of hours learners obtain to the mandated amount rather than encouraging them to obtain as much practice as possible.

Fatal crash trends for Australian young drivers 1997-2007: geographic and socioeconomic differentials

BACKGROUND

Little has been published on changes in young driver fatality rates over time. This paper examines differences in Australian young driver fatality rates over the last decade, examining important risk factors including place of residence and socioeconomic status (SES).

METHODS

Young driver (17-25years) police-recorded passenger vehicle crashes were extracted from New South Wales State records from 1997-2007. Rurality of residence and SES were classified into three levels based on drivers' residential postcode: urban, regional, or rural; and high, moderate, or low SES areas. Geographic and SES disparities in trends of fatality rates were examined by the generalized linear model. Chi-square trend test was used to examine the distributions of posted speed limits, drinking driving, fatigue, seatbelt use, vehicle age, night-time driving, and the time from crash to death across rurality and socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

Young driver fatality rate significantly decreased 5% per year (p<0.05); however, stratified analyses (by rurality and by SES) showed that only the reduction among urban drivers was significant (average 5% decrease per year, p<0.01). The higher relative risk of fatality for rural versus urban drivers, and for drivers of low versus high SES remained unchanged over the last decade. High posted speed limits, fatigue, drink driving and seatbelt non-use were significantly associated with rural fatalities, whereas high posted speed limit, fatigue, and driving an older vehicle were significantly related to low SES fatality.

CONCLUSION

The constant geographic and SES disparities in young driver fatality rates highlight safety inequities for those living in rural areas and those of low SES. Better targeted interventions are needed, including attention to behavioral risk factors and vehicle age.

Modeling the behavior of novice young drivers during the first year after licensure

Novice young drivers suffer from increased crash risk that translates into over-representation in road injuries. In order to effectively confront this problem, a better understanding of the driving behavior of novice young drivers and of its determinants is needed. This study analyzes the behavior of novice young drivers within a Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) program. Data on driving behavior of 62 novice drivers and their parents, who voluntarily participated in this experiment, were collected using in-vehicle data recorders that calculate compound risk indices as measures of the risk taking behavior of drivers. Data were used to estimate a negative binomial model to identify major determinants that affect the driving behavior of young drivers during the first year after licensure. Estimation results suggest that the risk taking behavior of young drivers is influenced by gender, sensation seeking tendency, driving behavior of their parents, amount of supervised driving and level of parental monitoring.

Road crash trends for young drivers in New South Wales, Australia, from 1997 to 2007

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this article was to explore overall crash and injury trends over the past decade for young drivers residing in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, including gender and age disparities.

METHODS

Passenger vehicle crashes for drivers aged 17-25 occurring during 1997-2007 were extracted from the state crash database to calculate crash rates (per licensed driver). Generalized linear models were used to examine crash trends over time by severity of driver injury, adjusting for age, gender, rurality of residence, and socioeconomic status. Yearly adjusted relative risks of crash by gender and by age group were also examined over the study period.

RESULTS

Young driver noninjury and fatality rates significantly decreased by an average of 4 percent (95% CI: 4-5) and 5 percent (95% CI: 0-9) respectively each year from 1997 to 2007. Young driver injury rates significantly increased by about 12 percent (95% CI: 9-14) to the year 2001 and then significantly decreased. The relative risk of crash (regardless of driver injury) for males compared to females significantly decreased over time. Compared to drivers aged 21-25, drivers aged 17 and particularly 18- to 20-year-olds had significantly and consistently higher crash risks across the study period.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, there has been a significant decline in young driver crashes in NSW over the last decade. Regardless of injury severity, males' risk of crash has reduced more than female young drivers, but drivers aged 17 continue to be at higher risk. These findings provide feedback on potential road safety successes and areas needing specific interventions for future improvements.

[Evidence-based effectiveness of road safety interventions: a literature review]

INTRODUCTION

Only road safety interventions with scientific evidence supporting their effectiveness should be implemented. The objective of this study was to identify and summarize the available evidence on the effectiveness of road safety interventions in reducing road traffic collisions, injuries and deaths.

METHODOLOGY

All literature reviews published in scientific journals that assessed the effectiveness of one or more road safety interventions and whose outcome measure was road traffic crashes, injuries or fatalities were included. An exhaustive search was performed in scientific literature databases. The interventions were classified according to the evidence of their effectiveness in reducing road traffic injuries (effective interventions, insufficient evidence of effectiveness, ineffective interventions) following the structure of the Haddon matrix.

RESULTS

Fifty-four reviews were included. Effective interventions were found before, during and after the collision, and across all factors: a) the individual: the graduated licensing system (31% road traffic injury reduction); b) the vehicle: electronic stability control system (2 to 41% reduction); c) the infrastructure: area-wide traffic calming (0 to 20%), and d) the social environment: speed cameras (7 to 30%). Certain road safety interventions are ineffective, mostly road safety education, and others require further investigation.

CONCLUSION

The most successful interventions are those that reduce or eliminate the hazard and do not depend on changes in road users' behavior or on their knowledge of road safety issues. Interventions based exclusively on education are ineffective in reducing road traffic injuries.

An evaluation of graduated driver licensing programs in North America using a meta-analytic approach

Most jurisdictions in North America have some version of graduated driver licensing (GDL). A sound body of evidence documenting the effectiveness of GDL programs in reducing collisions, fatalities and injuries among novice drivers is available. However, information about the relative importance of individual components of GDL is lacking. The objectives of this study are to calculate a summary statistic of GDL effectiveness and to identify the most effective components of GDL programs using a meta-analytic approach. Data from 46 American States, the District of Columbia and 11 Canadian jurisdictions are used and were obtained from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) for the U.S. and from Transport Canada's Traffic Accident Information Database (TRAID) for Canada. The timeframe of this evaluation is 1992 through 2006, inclusive. Relative fatality risks and their 95% confidence intervals were calculated using fatality counts and population data for target and comparison groups, both in a pre-implementation and post-implementation period in each jurisdiction. The target groups were 16-, 17-, 18- and 19-year-old drivers. The comparison group was 25-54-year-old drivers. The relative fatality risks of all jurisdictions were summarized using the random effects DerSimonian and Laird model. Meta-regression using Restricted Maximum Likelihood (REML) and Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) Gibbs sampling was also conducted. Strong evidence in support of GDL was found. GDL had a positive and significant impact on the relative fatality risk of 16-year-old drivers (reduction of 19.1%). Significant effects were found for meta-regression models with 16-, 18- and 19-year-old drivers. These effects include length of night restriction in the learner stage, country, driver education in the learner stage and in the intermediate stage, whether night restrictions are lifted in the intermediate stage for work purposes, passenger restriction in the intermediate stage, whether passenger restrictions in the intermediate stage are lifted if passengers are family members, and whether there is an exit test in the intermediate stage. In conclusion, several GDL program components have an important effect on the relative fatality risk of novice drivers. These results help understand how such effects are achieved.

Analysis of teenage seat belt use: from the 2007 Missouri high school seat belt survey

INTRODUCTION

This study analyzed high school teenagers' seat belt use based on the observational surveys of more than 15,000 teenagers at 150 schools and was conducted in the state of Missouri, U.S., in 2007. Since fatal car accidents involving high school teenagers are disproportionately high, and increased seat belt use saves lives in what would otherwise be fatal accidents, it is imperative that teenagers' safety be protected through an increase in use.

METHOD

This study investigated various personal, vehicle, school, and locational factors associated with high school teenagers' seat belt use. Descriptive and binary logit analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

We find that low seat belt use is associated with males, African-Americans, pick-up trucks, accompanying occupants, weekends, inclement driving conditions, small size of school, lower socio-economic status, and rural county school locations. Several factors influencing teenage seat belt use are quite similar to those affecting adult seat belt use, in addition to certain risky behaviors to which teenagers are prone, supporting the importance of early intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Programs in schools, the adoption of primary seat belt laws, GDL provisions requiring seat belt use, targeted education and campaign efforts for African-American teenagers, seat belt reminder systems, and more resources for rural counties on safety education and enforcement may help increase seat belt use in this vulnerable age group, though other research questions are implied.

Novice drivers' risky driving behavior, risk perception, and crash risk: findings from the DRIVE study

OBJECTIVES

We explored the risky driving behaviors and risk perceptions of a cohort of young novice drivers and sought to determine their associations with crash risk.

METHODS

Provisional drivers aged 17 to 24 (n = 20 822) completed a detailed questionnaire that included measures of risk perception and behaviors; 2 years following recruitment, survey data were linked to licensing and police-reported crash data. Poisson regression models that adjusted for multiple confounders were created to explore crash risk.

RESULTS

High scores on questionnaire items for risky driving were associated with a 50% increased crash risk (adjusted relative risk = 1.51; 95% confidence interval = 1.25, 1.81). High scores for risk perception (poorer perceptions of safety) were also associated with increased crash risk in univariate and multivariate models; however, significance was not sustained after adjustment for risky driving.

CONCLUSIONS

The overrepresentation of youths in crashes involving casualties is a significant public health issue. Risky driving behavior is strongly linked to crash risk among young drivers and overrides the importance of risk perceptions. Systemwide intervention, including licensing reform, is warranted.

How do car crashes happen among young drivers aged 18-20 years? Typical circumstances in relation to license status, alcohol impairment and injury consequences

AIM

The study aims to clarify the most typical circumstances in which car crashes involving young drivers and leading to the occurrence of injuries and to consider the various licensing statuses of the drivers in such crashes.

METHOD

Young Swedish drivers born between 1984 and 1986 were followed up in the Police register (2003-2004) for their involvement in car crashes as drivers (n=2448). A set of five variables (25 categories) descriptive of those crashes was analyzed simultaneously by means of cluster analysis. Associations between crash clusters and licensing status (including none), licensing duration and alcohol involvement were also measured.

RESULTS

Five clusters were identified, typical of one or some specific crash type(s): single-vehicle in sparsely populated areas, front-on collisions, crashes at dawn or at dusk, turning, cars of later model, crashes in urban areas and speed limits below 50 km/h. Clusters differ in consequences and in the proportions of alcohol impaired drivers involved but not regarding proportions of novice drivers. Unlicensed drivers were found in excess in some clusters (especially single and night time crashes).

CONCLUSION

Young drivers are involved in crashes leading to injuries in rather specific circumstances. For some of them, novice drivers or even unlicensed drivers are over-represented, which points to the need for targeted counter-measures, alongside those general ones already in place.

What can we learn about North Dakota's youngest drivers from their crashes?

For North Dakota teens, three of every four deaths are from motor vehicle crashes. Injury crash records for teen drivers were studied to gain insight regarding driver, vehicle, and road factors for public safety policy and program discussions. Results show 14-year-old drivers are three times more likely to die or be disabled in an injury crash than 17-year-old drivers, and that male drivers are 30% less likely to incur severe injury. As expected, seat belt use is a critical factor in severe injury avoidance. The likelihood for death or disablement is 165% greater for unbelted teen drivers than for those who are properly belted. In addition, rural and gravel roads pose a risk. Teens are six times more likely to be severely injured in crashes on rural roads than on urban roads. Findings suggest that an increased licensing age and seat belt emphasis may reduce teen traffic injuries in the state. In addition, more information on exposure should be attained to better understand rural and gravel road as risks.

Effects of graduated driver licensing on licensure and traffic injury rates in Upstate New York

OBJECTIVE

In 2003, New York State implemented an enhanced graduated driving licensing (GDL) program that requires extended supervised driving and a passenger restriction. This study examines its safety benefit in 55 Upstate New York counties.

METHODS

We analyzed fatal/incapacitating traffic injury data among 16-, 17- and 21-24-year olds for the years 2001 and 2005 using the negative binomial model. To adjust for trends in the traffic injury rate, the relative rate ratio (rRR) of 16- and 17-year olds relative to 21-24-year olds was estimated.

RESULTS

GDL implementation was associated with a 31% reduction in the driver injury rate (rRR 0.69, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.49-0.96), but not with any statistically significant change in the passenger injury rate (rRR 1.19, 95% CI 0.77-1.84), or pedestrian and bicyclist injury rate (rRR 1.53, 95% CI 0.89-2.62) among 16-year olds. Sixteen-year olds experienced a 21% decline in licensure rates between 2001 and 2005. GDL implementation had no appreciable impact on driver injury and licensure rates for 17- and 21-24-year olds.

CONCLUSIONS

GDL implementation is associated with a significant reduction in licensure and driver injury rate among 16-year olds. GDL implementation does not have a statistically significant impact on passenger, pedestrian, and bicyclist injury rates for 16-year olds.

Views of Connecticut parents of teens and other adults about graduated licensing upgrades

OBJECTIVES

Many states, including Connecticut, have strengthened their licensing laws in response to continuing teen deaths. At the time of the survey, Connecticut was considering further changes and it is likely that other states will be doing the same. The objective was to determine parental views about enhancements to the learner stage and to existing night and passenger restrictions.

METHODS

Parents of teens and a sample of other adults were interviewed by telephone.

RESULTS

Connecticut parents were well aware of the provisions of the current law. The majority of parents of teens and a majority of "other adults" supported a requirement for increased driving supervision, a longer permit period, a longer-term passenger restriction, and a night restriction starting earlier than midnight. About half favored a higher minimum permit age. Support was highest among "other adults" and among females in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Survey results such as these can provide guidance to states wishing to reduce the young driver problem through changes in licensing laws. Connecticut in fact enacted new legislation effective August 1, 2008, strengthening requirements in ways supported by parents and other adults. Survey results were available to legislators during their deliberations and may have played a role.

Passenger distractions among adolescent drivers

PROBLEM

Adolescents who drive with peers are known to have a higher risk of crashes. While passengers may distract drivers, little is known about the circumstances of these distractions among teen drivers.

METHOD

This study used survey data on driving among 2,144 California high school seniors to examine distractions caused by passengers.

RESULTS

Overall, 38.4% of youths who drove reported having been distracted by a passenger. Distractions were more commonly reported among girls and students attending moderate- to high-income schools. Talking or yelling was the most commonly reported type of distraction. About 7.5% of distractions reported were deliberate, such as hitting or tickling the driver or attempting to use the vehicle's controls. Driving after alcohol use and having had a crash as a driver were both significant predictors of reporting passenger-related distraction.

CONCLUSION

Adolescents often experience distractions related to passengers, and in some cases these distractions are intentional.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

These results provide information about teenage drivers who are distracted by passenger behaviors. In some cases, passengers attempted to use vehicle controls; however, it seems unlikely that this behavior is common enough to warrant redesign of controls to make them less accessible to passengers.

Parent attitudes toward integrating parent involvement into teenage driver education courses

OBJECTIVE

The widespread adoption of graduated driver licensing (GDL) policies has effectively reduced crash risk for young drivers; however, parents must support, reinforce, and enforce GDL for it to be effective, and research indicates that parents need better information and instruction for adhering to GDL requirements, conducting supervised practice driving, and restricting independent teenage driving. Because teenagers in most states must take driver education to enter the licensing process prior to age 18, integrating parent involvement into driver education may be an effective way to inform and instruct parents on a large scale about teen driver safety. This study assessed parent attitudes (overall and by rural status, minority status, and income level) toward integrating parent involvement into teenage driver education classes.

METHODS

In this study, 321 parents of teenagers enrolled in driver education classes across the state of Montana completed surveys about current involvement in driver education and attitudes toward required involvement.

RESULTS

The results indicated that parents were not very involved currently in their teenagers' driver education classes, but 76% reported that parents should be required to be involved. If involvement were required, parents would prefer having written materials sent home, access to information over the Internet, or discussions in person with the instructor; far fewer would prefer to attend classes or behind-the-wheel driving instruction. There were few differences in parent attitudes by rural or minority status but many by income level. Compared to higher income parents, lower income parents were more likely to endorse required parent involvement in teenage driver education classes and to want parent information from driver education about many teen driving issues.

CONCLUSIONS

That the majority of parents are open to required involvement in their teenagers' driver education classes is promising because doing so could better prepare parents to understand and adhere to GDL policies, supervise teenagers' practice driving, and manage teen independent driving, all of which could further increase teen driver safety.

Progress in teenage crash risk during the last decade

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the present study was to examine the most recent data on teenagers' fatal and nonfatal crashes in the United States to determine current crash rates as well as changes in crash rates during the past decade

METHODS

Data for calendar years 1996 and 2005 were extracted for fatal crashes from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System and for police-reported crashes from the National Automotive Sampling System/General Estimates System. To calculate crash rates, population data were obtained from the Census Bureau, and mileage data were obtained from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey

RESULTS

During 2001-02, the latest year for which mileage data are available, 16 year-old drivers had higher fatal and nonfatal crash rates per mile traveled than all but the very oldest drivers. However, fewer 16 year-olds typically are licensed to drive and they drive fewer miles per year than all but the oldest drivers. Thus, their fatal and nonfatal crash rates per population in 2005 were lower than among other teenagers and among drivers 20-29. During the past decade the most progress has been made in reducing crashes among the youngest drivers. Between 1996 and 2005 both fatal and police-reported crashes per population declined about 40% for 16 year-old drivers, compared with about 25% for 17 year-old drivers and 15-19% for 18 year-old drivers. The greatest reductions for 16 year-olds occurred in nighttime crashes, alcohol-related fatal crashes, and fatal crashes involving multiple teenage passengers.

CONCLUSIONS

Substantial progress has been made in reducing fatal and nonfatal crashes per population among 16 year-old drivers. Although this study was not designed to examine the role of graduated licensing, the results are consistent with the increased presence of such laws, many of which restrict nighttime driving and driving with teenage passengers.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

Restrictions on nighttime driving and driving with teenage passengers should be made a part of all states' graduated licensing systems. Historically, 16 year-olds have had the highest crash risk per licensed driver and per mile traveled. Given the dramatic reductions in per population crash rates among 16 year-olds, it is possible that their per mile and per licensed driver rates also have declined and may no longer be as elevated relative to other ages. However, shortcomings in the licensed driver data and a lack of recent mileage data hamper our ability to examine these issues. If we are to continue to provide a yardstick against which we can measure progress among the youngest drivers, immediate steps need to be taken to restore the availability of reliable exposure data.

Improving graduated driver licensing systems: a conceptual approach and its implications

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) is a concept for how to transform non-drivers into reasonably safe drivers while minimizing the risks as they learn. Several state GDL programs can be improved by moving their structures closer to an adequate implementation of that concept. The learner stage of a GDL system needs to be long enough for beginners to obtain a thorough introduction to the vagaries of driving. The second or intermediate stage needs to effectively limit exposure to known high risk conditions as novices adapt to being fully in charge of the vehicle. The benefits of GDL to date are due almost entirely to the risk-reducing conditions it implements. To improve the functioning of GDL will probably require a better understanding of teen driving than we presently have. The likelihood of further gains will be enhanced by efforts to learn more about the actual causes of teen crashes, the nature and type of teen driver exposures, and what parents do with their teens during the supervised driving stage of GDL. Without a better understanding of these, and other, phenomena it will be difficult to further reduce crashes among young beginning drivers, whether through GDL enhancements or with other approaches.

Graduated driver licensing: review of evaluation results since 2002

Unintentional injury from motor-vehicle crashes is the number one cause of death among teenagers in the United States. Increasingly, jurisdictions have adopted three-stage graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems for young novice drivers. Since a previous review of U.S. GDL evaluation results, many more U.S. states and Canadian provinces have implemented GDL and/or had enough time pass that additional evaluation results are now available. Twenty-one studies of GDL within 14 individual jurisdictions, and six studies of GDL in the U.S. nationwide, were collected, reviewed, and summarized. Positive results (usually crash reductions) of varying degrees were reported from nearly all the studies. Given differences in approaches, study goals, methods, and analyses, the results are surprisingly consistent. Overall, GDL programs have reduced the youngest drivers' crash risk by roughly 20 to 40%. Research on teen driving and comprehensive GDL enhancements could further reduce teen drivers' motor-vehicle crashes, injuries, and fatalities.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

Policy-makers, as well as the motor vehicle, insurance, and other industries have been involved in teen driving safety and could enhance and coordinate their roles.