Reducing crash risk for young drivers: Protocol for a pragmatic randomised controlled trial to improve young driver sleep

Background

Road trauma is a leading cause of death and disability for young Australians (15-24 years). Young adults are overrepresented in crashes due to sleepiness, with two-thirds of their fatal crashes attributed to sleepy driving. This trial aims to examine the effectiveness of a sleep extension and education program for improved road safety in young adults.

Methods

Young adults aged 18-24 years (n = 210) will be recruited for a pragmatic randomised controlled trial employing a placebo-controlled, parallel-groups design. The intervention group will undergo sleep extension and receive education on sleep, whereas the placebo control group will be provided with information about diet and nutrition. The primary outcomes of habitual sleep and on-road driving performance will be assessed via actigraphy and in-vehicle accelerometery. A range of secondary outcomes including driving behaviours (driving simulator), sleep (diaries and questionnaire) and socio-emotional measures will be assessed.

Discussion

Sleep is a modifiable factor that may reduce the risk of sleepiness-related crashes. Modifying sleep behaviour could potentially help to reduce the risk of young driver sleepiness-related crashes. This randomised control trial will objectively assess the efficacy of implementing sleep behaviour manipulation and education on reducing crash risk in young adult drivers.

Risky driving behavior among individuals with Autism, ADHD, and typically developing persons

INTRODUCTION

Many individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often experience difficulty with driving, including difficulty with obtaining a driver's license as well as driving safely and efficiently. Such difficulties negatively impact their ability to function independently and participate in daily activities that require driving. ASD and ADHD commonly occur co-morbidly and share many overlapping clinical features. Few studies have directly compared the nature of difficulties in driving safety outcomes between ASD and ADHD. The overarching goal of the current study was to characterize and compare self-reported driving behavior among young autistic drivers, ADHD drivers, and typically developing (TD) drivers.

METHOD

Fifty-four participants (14 ASD, 20 ADHD, 20 TD); ages 16-30) completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient and ADHD Adult Rating scale as a method of screening of symptoms. All three groups then completed the Driving Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ), which measured self-reported driving violations, driving errors, and overall risky driving behavior. The three groups of ASD, ADHD, and TD individuals were then compared regarding symptomology and driving behavior differences.

RESULTS

One-way ANOVAs indicated group differences in DBQ total scores and DBQ errors. Drivers with ADHD reported significantly greater overall risky driving behaviors and driving errors compared to ASD and TD drivers. There were no significant differences between ASD and TD drivers in reported risky driving behaviors and errors. Linear regressions indicated that among all drivers, self-reported ADHD symptoms were significantly associated with higher levels of self-reported overall risky driving and driving errors, regardless of diagnostic group.

DISCUSSION

Risky driving and driving errors may be more closely related to symptoms that are characteristic of ADHD. This has implications for individuals with ADHD and autistic individuals who often show or report higher rates of ADHD symptoms. Future studies should compare driving skills of ASD and ADHD drivers using objective measures of driving performance, such as driving simulators or on-road tests.

Impulsivity and self-regulation: A dual-process model of risky driving in young drivers in Iran

The dual-process model of risky driving (Lazuras, Rowe, Poulter, Powell, & Ypsilanti, 2019) suggested that regulatory processes mediate the effect of impulsivity on risky driving. The current study aimed to examine the cross-cultural generalisability of this model to Iranian drivers, who are from a country with a markedly higher rate of traffic collisions. We sampled 458 Iranian drivers aged 18 to 25 using an online survey measuring impulsive processes including impulsivity, normlessness and sensation-seeking, and regulatory processes comprising emotion-regulation, trait self-regulation, driving self-regulation, executive functions, reflective functioning and attitudes toward driving. In addition, we used the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire to measure driving violations and errors. Executive functions and driving self-regulation mediated the effect of attention impulsivity on driving errors. Executive functions, reflective functioning, and driving self-regulation mediated the relationship between motor impulsivity and driving errors. Finally, attitudes toward driving safety significantly mediated the relationship of both normlessness and sensation-seeking with driving violations. These results support the mediatory role of cognitive and self-regulatory capacities in the connection between impulsive processes and driving errors and violations. Overall, the present study confirmed the validity of the dual-process model of risky driving in a sample of young drivers in Iran. Implications for educating drivers and implementing policies and interventions based on this model are discussed.

The association between the Big Five personality traits and driving behaviors: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Although a large number of studies have examined the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and driving behaviors, consistent evidence for their relationships is still lacking. The main purpose of this study was to systematically review the relationships between the Big Five personality traits and various driving behaviors with different intentions (including risky, aggressive, and positive driving behaviors) through a meta-analysis. A total of 34 articles met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis. The results showed that risky and aggressive driving behaviors were negatively associated with conscientiousness (r = -0.21; r = -0.26), agreeableness (r = -0.23; r = -0.37), and openness (r = -0.08; r = -0.07), positively associated with neuroticism (r = 0.11; r = 0.26), and nonsignificantly associated with extraversion (r = 0.06; r = -0.06). Positive driving behaviors were positively associated with conscientiousness (r = 0.30), agreeableness (r = 0.32) and openness (r = 0.20) but nonsignificantly associated with extraversion (r = 0.08) and neuroticism (r = -0.10). In addition, the association between the Big Five personality traits and driving behaviors could be moderated by age, gender and type of personality measure. In conclusion, this study contributes to the literature by quantitatively synthesizing existing findings and reconciling previous debates on the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and driving behaviors. From a practical perspective, our findings provide valuable insights into driver selection and screening, policy development, and safety intervention design.

Peer pressure and risky driving: Development of a new scale

INTRODUCTION

Peer pressure is a main factor influencing risky driving behavior in young people. Most empirical studies have focused either on direct or indirect peer pressure, and comprehensive measures assessing both are currently lacking. The present study aimed at developing and validating a scale to examine the influence of different types of peer pressure on risky driving in young drivers: the Peer Pressure on Risky Driving Scale (PPRDS).

METHOD

Scale construction and assessment of its psychometric properties involved four phases: item development, assessment of content validity by expert reviewers, pre-testing of the scale and evaluation of psychometric properties of the final version in a sample of 773 young drivers aged 18-29.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis supported a three-factor structure that reflected the multifaceted definition of peer pressure on risky driving in the immediate driving context: risk-encouraging direct peer pressure; risk-discouraging direct peer pressure, and indirect pressure. The three factor scales showed good internal consistency and construct reliability, and correlated as expected with self-reported risky driving. Younger drivers (18-24) reported more direct and indirect peer pressure to engage in risky driving. Males indicated more direct peer pressure towards risky driving. Finally, interaction effects between age and sex were observed. Young male drivers reported the greatest direct peer pressure and adult female drivers the lowest direct peer pressure.

CONCLUSIONS

The 23-item PPRDS scale has good psychometric properties and provides a useful tool for assessing different forms of peer pressure on risky driving.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The PPRDS can be used for evaluating the impact of peer-based education and road safety programs. The scale also provides valuable information for the design of evidence-based intervention.

Driving Performance in Older Adults: Current Measures, Findings, and Implications for Roadway Safety

Background and Objectives

Over 10,000 people a day turn 65 in the United States. For many older adults, driving represents an essential component of independence and is one of the most important factors in overall mobility. Recent survey studies in older adults suggest that up to 60% of older adult drivers with mild cognitive impairment, and up to 30% with dementia, continue to drive. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive and detailed resource on the topics of cognition and driving for clinicians, researchers, and policymakers working on efforts related to older adult drivers.

Research Design and Methods

Publications on PubMed and Medline and discussions with experts working in geriatrics, technology, driving policy, psychology, and diverse aspects of driving performance were utilized to inform the current review.

Results

Research indicates that there is a complex and inverse correlation between multiple cognitive measures, driving performance, and risky driving behaviors. The fragmented nature of available peer-reviewed literature, and a reliance on correlative data, do not currently allow for the identification of the temporal and reciprocal nature of the interplay between cognition and driving endpoints.

Discussion and Implications

There are currently no widely accepted definitions, conceptual models, or uniform set of analyses for conducting geriatric research that is focused on driving. Establishing conventions for conducting research that harmonizes the fields of geriatrics, cognition, and driving research is critical for the development of the evidence base that will inform clinical practice and road safety policy.

Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and risk-taking behaviors in early adulthood

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies show evidence for associations of prenatal exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides with poorer childhood neurodevelopment. As children grow older, poorer cognition, executive function, and school performance can give rise to risk-taking behaviors, including substance abuse, delinquency, and violent acts. We investigated whether prenatal OP exposure was associated with these risk-taking behaviors in adolescence and young adulthood in a Mexican American cohort.

METHODS

We measured urinary dialkyl phosphates (DAPs), non-specific metabolites of OPs, twice (13 and 26 weeks gestation) in pregnant women recruited in 1999-2000 in the Center for the Health Assessment of Mothers and Children of Salinas (CHAMACOS) study, a birth cohort set in a primarily Latino agricultural community in the Salinas Valley, California. We followed up children throughout their childhood and adolescence; at the 18-year visit, adolescent youth (n = 315) completed a computer-based questionnaire which included questions about substance use, risky sexual activity, risky driving, and delinquency and police encounters. We used multivariable models to estimate associations of prenatal total DAPs with these risk-taking behaviors.

RESULTS

The prevalence of risk-taking behaviors in CHAMACOS youth ranged from 8.9% for smoking or vaping nicotine to 70.2% for committing a delinquent act. Associations of total prenatal DAPs (geometric mean = 132.4 nmol/L) with risk-taking behavior were generally null and imprecise. Isolated findings included a higher risk for smoking or vaping nicotine within the past 30 days (relative risk [RR] per 10-fold increase in prenatal DAPs = 1.89, 95% CI: 1.00, 3.56) and driving without a license (RR = 1.74, 95% CI: 1.25, 2.42). There were no consistent differences by sex or childhood adversity.

DISCUSSION

We did not find clear or consistent evidence for associations of prenatal OP exposure with risk-taking behaviors in adolescence/early adulthood in the CHAMACOS population. Our small sample size may have prevented us from detecting potentially subtle associations of early life OP exposure with these risk-taking behaviors.

Psychometric properties of the Mexican version of the Driver's Angry Thoughts Questionnaire and analysis of invariance with the Romanian and Spanish versions

Research has shown the relevance of three axes in the study of violent behaviour: the emotional axis (anger), the behavioural axis (aggression), and the cognitive axis (hostility or aggressive thinking). In the field of driving, the first two axes have received a lot of attention, whereas the third one has been less studied. The current research aimed to analyse the psychometric properties of the Driver's Angry Thoughts Questionnaire (DATQ) in a Mexican sample. Besides, the structural invariance of this instruments was analysed with respect to both the Spanish and the Romanian versions. A sample of 294 participants taken from the general Mexican drivers population completed a set of measures including the DATQ and the Driving Survey, as a measure of risky driving, aggressive driving, and crash-related events. The results showed that the Mexican version of the DATQ replied the original five-factor structure, maintaining the 65 items likewise in both the Spanish and Romanian versions. Analyses of the invariance suggested the equivalence among the three versions, especially in the case of Mexican-Spanish. Moreover, the five factors were positive and mostly significantly related to each other, and with both risky driving and aggressive driving. Some significant relationships were attained also with crash-related events, especially in the case of those which happened in the last three months (short-termed). Finally, males showed higher scores than females in the five ways of aggressive thinking. Limitations of the study, practical implications and future research are discussed.

Trajectories of risky driving among emerging adults with their mental and psychosomatic health predictors in the 12th grade

OBJECTIVE

To identify trajectory classes of risky driving among emerging adults and examine predictive associations of depressive and psychosomatic symptoms in the 12th grade with the identified trajectory classes.

METHODS

Data were from the last year in high school (12th-Grade - Wave 3 [W3]) and years 1-4 after high school (Waves 4-7 [W4-7]) of the NEXT Generation Health Study, a nationally representative study starting with 10th grade (2009-2010). We measured risky driving with the 21-item Checkpoints Self-Reported Risky Driving Scale (C-RDS). Using C-RDS data from W3-7, the latent class growth modeling (LCGM) was used to identify risky driving trajectory classes. Independent variables were W3 depressive symptoms and W3 psychosomatic symptoms. Covariates included family affluence and urbanicity. The LCGM was conducted with SAS PROC Traj. The multinomial logistic regressions were used to examine the associations between the trajectory classes and independent variables, taking complex survey sampling features into account.

RESULTS

Three risky driving trajectories were identified: low (N = 583, 21.43%, weighted and hereafter), medium (N = 1423, 59.22%), and high (N = 389, 19.35%) risky driving classes. Compared to the low risky driving class, one unit increase in W3 depressive symptoms was significantly associated with a higher likelihood of belonging to the medium (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.04, 95% CI 1.01, 1.07) and the high (AOR = 1.05, 95% CI 1.02, 1.08) risky driving classes, respectfully, when controlling for the covariates. Likewise, compared to the low risky driving class, one unit increase in W3 psychosomatic symptoms was significantly associated with a higher likelihood of belonging to the medium (AOR = 1.06, 95% CI 1.00, 1.13) and the high (AOR = 1.10, 95% CI 1.04, 1.16) risky driving classes, respectively, when controlling for the covariates.

CONCLUSIONS

High school students with depressive and psychosomatic symptoms were at higher risk of engaging in risky driving in the immediate years after leaving high school. These findings suggest that prevention programs that incorporate screening, referral to treatment, and treatment of mental and psychosomatic symptoms in high school may be important opportunities to reduce risky driving among youth as they transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood.

The contribution of driving with friends to young drivers' intention to take risks: An expansion of the theory of planned behavior

Young drivers' reckless driving, especially among males, is a global phenomenon and a major cause of injury and death. The behavior of young people, including their driving norms, is influenced by the dominant social discourse in their age group. Thus, the nature of the interaction between young drivers and their peers may contribute to increased or decreased risk exposure not only for everyone in the car, but also for other road users, and therefore warrants deeper examination. This study aims to shed light on driving with friends as a particular case of driving with peers. It was designed to examine the role of the four dimensions of the Safe Driving Climate among Friends (SDCaF) scale, in predicting young drivers' intention to take risks behind the wheel, beyond the contribution of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The sample consisted of 166 participants (70 men, 96 women), ranging in age from 17 to 24 years, who completed a set of self-report questionnaires. The findings demonstrate that the SDCaF dimensions, and especially perceived friends' pressure while driving, add to the explained variance in intention to engage in risky driving, beyond the variance explained by gender and the three components of the TPB. In addition to its theoretical expansion of the TPB model to include specific components relating to perceived driving with friends, the study's practical significance lies in directing efforts towards revealing pathways to reduce reckless driving among young people, through engaging their friends in the process.

Psychosocial factors as predictors of risky driving behavior and accident involvement among drivers in Oromia Region, Ethiopia

This study was designed to examine the influence of selected psychosocial factors (alcohol /substance use, driving anger, altruism, and normlessness) on risky driving behavior and accident involvement of drivers. A total of 343 freight transport and minibus drivers were made to fill the Amharic version of self-reporting scales of alcohol and/or substance use, driving anger, altruism, normlessness, risky driving behavior and accident involvement adapted from various sources. To test the proposed hypotheses, correlation, multiple regression and path analyses were conducted. Results of the study elucidated that selected psychosocial factors, particularly driving anger, normlessness, and alcohol/substance use significantly predicted variability in risky driving behavior. The study also revealed that risky driving behavior accounted for limited variability in accident involvement. Furthermore, risky driving behavior mediates the link between psychosocial factors and involvement in road traffic accidents. Implications of the findings have been discussed in terms of improving drivers’ training curricula and enforcement of traffic laws.

Driving under the influence of cannabis among medical cannabis patients with chronic pain

BACKGROUND

Driving under the influence of cannabis (DUIC) is a public health concern among those using medical cannabis. Understanding behaviors contributing to DUIC can inform prevention efforts. We evaluated three past 6-month DUIC behaviors among medical cannabis users with chronic pain.

METHODS

Adults (N = 790) seeking medical cannabis certification or recertification for moderate/severe pain were recruited from February 2014 through June 2015 at Michigan medical cannabis clinics. About half of participants were male (52%) and 81% were White; their Mean age was 45.8 years. Participants completed survey measures of DUIC (driving within 2 h of use, driving while "a little high," and driving while "very high") and background factors (demographics, alcohol use, etc.). Unadjusted and adjusted logistic regressions were used to examine correlates of DUIC.

RESULTS

For the past 6 months, DUIC within 2 h of use was reported by 56.4% of the sample, DUIC while a "little high" was reported by 50.5%, and "very high" was reported by 21.1%. Greater cannabis quantity consumed and binge drinking were generally associated with DUIC behaviors. Higher pain was associated with lower likelihood of DUIC. Findings vary somewhat across DUIC measures.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of DUIC is concerning, with more research needed on how to best measure DUIC. Prevention messaging for DUIC may be enhanced by addressing alcohol co-consumption.

Crash Risk and Risky Driving Behavior Among Adolescents During Learner and Independent Driving Periods

PURPOSE

Novice adolescents' crash rates are highly elevated early in licensure, despite substantial practicedriving during the learner period. The objectives of this study were to examine the variability in measures of driving risk among adolescents during the learner and early independent driving periods and evaluate how risk varies by driving experience, gender, time of day, and road surface conditions.

METHODS

Objective driving data were collected in a naturalistic cohort study of 90 adolescent drivers with learner driving permit and 131 experienced adult drivers. Participants' private vehicles were equipped with data acquisition system documenting driving kinematics, miles driven, and video recordings of the driver and the driving environment. Crash/near-crash (CNC) and kinematic risky driving (KRD) rates were calculated during the learner and early independent driving periods by gender (female/male), time of day (day/night), and road surface conditions (wet/dry) for adolescents and adults.

RESULTS

CNC and KRD rates of adolescents were similar to adult drivers during the learner period (CNC: incident rate ratio [IRR] = 1.67, confidence interval [CI] = .98-2.82 and KRD: IRR = 1.04, CI = .78-1.40, respectively), but dramatically higher in the first year of independent driving (CNC: IRR = 6.51, CI = 4.03-10.51 and KRD: IRR = 3.95, CI = 2.96-5.26, respectively), and particularly elevated the first 3months of licensure. Adolescent KRD rates were higher for males than females and invariably higher than adult rates during day and night, wet and dry conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

While the learner driving period was relatively safe for adolescents, the transition to independent driving was typified by a dramatic increase in risk among adolescents that was higher than adult rates overall and under varying driving conditions.

Adolescent Street Racing and Other Risky Driving Behaviors

PURPOSE

We examined demographic characteristics and risky driving behaviors associated with street racing among adolescents in the NEXT Generation Health Study (N = 2,395).

METHOD

Binomial logistic regression tested associations between demographics and driving in a street race (DSR) or being a passenger in a street race (PSR). Sequential logistic regression tested the robustness of the association between DSR and crashes.

RESULTS

Hispanic/Latino, non-Hispanic Black/African-American, and mixed-race participants were more likely to engage in DSR. Males were more likely and teens with moderate socioeconomic status were less likely to engage in DSR and PSR. DSR was associated with other risky driving behaviors in bivariate models but was not independently associated with crashes after sequential modeling.

CONCLUSIONS

Among adolescents, those who are male, racial/ethnic minorities, or low socioeconomic status may be at higher risk of DSR. However, overall driving risk might explain the association between DSR engagement and higher crash risk.

Risky Driving Behaviors for Older Adults: Differences by Veteran's Status

Veterans are at an increased risk of being injured or killed in motor vehicle crashes, potentially due to their proclivity to engage in risky driving behaviors. However, most research in this area has focused on driving behaviors of veterans who have recently returned home after deployment. No research has focused on risky driving behaviors of older veterans (aged 65 or older) and if risky driving behaviors extend beyond the time period immediately following return from deployment. The purpose of this research is to determine if differences exist in risky driving behaviors of veterans and non-veterans aged 65 or older. This study used data from the 2011 National Health and Aging Trend Study (NHATS), a nationally representative, longitudinal survey of community-dwelling, Medicare beneficiaries aged 65 or older. Binary logistic regression analyses were conducted in 2017 to determine if veteran's status was predictive of specific risky driving behaviors. Veteran's status was found to be predictive of specific driving behaviors for adults aged 65 and older, with non-veterans significantly more likely than veterans to: not currently drive; avoid driving at night; avoid driving alone; avoid driving on busy roads or highways; and avoid driving in bad weather. The results of this study highlight the need to further understand the effects of veteran's status on risky driving behaviors among older adults, specifically, whether veteran's status compounds driving-related risks associated with aging-related physical and mental changes.

The impact of police presence on angry and aggressive driving

An extensive body of research has found that angry and aggressive driving are both significantly related to crash involvement. There has also been a large body of research investigating the situational factors related to angry and aggressive driving, but one interesting question that has not yet been answered is whether the enforcement of traffic laws causes or reduces angry and aggressive driving. The independent region of Northern Kosovo represents a unique opportunity to investigate the impact of a lack of traffic enforcement on driving behaviour. Therefore, the present study set out to investigate whether the presence of traffic enforcement has a significant impact on the level of driver anger and aggressive driving. Registered owners of motor vehicles in Northern Kosovo and Serbia were both sent a questionnaire which contained the 28-item Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) and the 21-item UK Driving Anger Scale (UKDAS). This found that anger was higher in two of the four driving anger factors (direct hostility and progress impeded) and two of the three DDDI factors (risky driving & aggressive driving). Furthermore, the present study found that the lack of police enforcement was a significant predictor of both aggressive and risky driving, even after the driving anger and demographic variables had been partialled out. Therefore, it appears that introducing or increasing traffic enforcement may be one method of reducing aggressive and risky driving behaviour.

Young drivers and their cars: Safe and sound or the perfect storm?

Consistent with the experiences in high-income countries, young drivers remain overrepresented in road trauma statistics in low- and middle-income countries. This article pursues the emerging interest of approaching the young driver problem from a systems thinking perspective in order to design and deliver robust countermeasures. Specifically, the focus of this paper is the cars driven by young drivers. The study of vehicles' characteristics and their interaction with driving behaviour is, more often than not, considered a minor concern when developing countermeasures in young drivers' safety not only in developed nations, but especially in developing nations. Participants completed an online survey containing the 44-item Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale Spanish version (BYNDS-Sp), in addition to providing information regarding their vehicle, any crash involvement, and driving offences. Based on the vehicle model information, the assessment of vehicle safety was conducted for three safety programs (ANCAP, Latin NCAP, U.S. NCAP). Young drivers in Colombia reported a breadth of risky driving behaviours worth targeting in broader interventions. For example, interventions can target speeding, particularly as three quarters of the participants drove small-medium cars associated with poorer road safety outcomes. Moreover, risky driving exposure was highly prevalent amongst the young driver participants, demonstrating the need for them to be driving the safest vehicles possible. It is noteworthy that few cars were able to be assessed by the Latin NCAP (with half of the cars rated having only 0-2 star ratings), and that there was considerable discrepancy between ANCAP, U.S. NCAP, and Latin NCAP ratings. The need for system-wide strategies to increase young driver road safety-such as improved vehicle safety-is vital to improve road safety outcomes in jurisdictions such as Colombia. Such improvements may also require systemic changes such as enhanced vehicle safety rating scales and investigation of the nature of vehicles sold in developing nations, particularly as these vehicles typically contain fewer safety features than their counterparts sold in developed nations.

Aggression, emotional self-regulation, attentional bias, and cognitive inhibition predict risky driving behavior

The present study explored whether aggression, emotional regulation, cognitive inhibition, and attentional bias towards emotional stimuli were related to risky driving behavior (driving errors, and driving violations). A total of 117 applicants for taxi driver positions (89% male, M age=36.59years, SD=9.39, age range 24-62years) participated in the study. Measures included the Ahwaz Aggression Inventory, the Difficulties in emotion regulation Questionnaire, the emotional Stroop task, the Go/No-go task, and the Driving Behavior Questionnaire. Correlation and regression analyses showed that aggression and emotional regulation predicted risky driving behavior. Difficulties in emotion regulation, the obstinacy and revengeful component of aggression, attentional bias toward emotional stimuli, and cognitive inhibition predicted driving errors. Aggression was the only significant predictive factor for driving violations. In conclusion, aggression and difficulties in regulating emotions may exacerbate risky driving behaviors. Deficits in cognitive inhibition and attentional bias toward negative emotional stimuli can increase driving errors. Predisposition to aggression has strong effect on making one vulnerable to violation of traffic rules and crashes.

Role of sensation seeking and attitudes as mediators between age of driver and risky driving of Powered Two Wheelers

INTRODUCTION

This study examines the effect of age of driver on risky driving of Powered Two-Wheelers (PTW) employing sensation seeking and safety attitudes as mediators.

METHODS

A survey was conducted with 1299 PTW drivers (1089 males and 210 females) within the age of 18 and 63years, living in the state of Kerala, India. The questionnaire consisted of 31 items to measure sensation seeking, safety attitude, and risky driving of the drivers.

RESULTS

Mediation models were examined using sensation seeking as mediator and secondly safety attitudes as mediators. The relationship between the driver's age and risky driving was fully mediated by all the three variables.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Results of this study suggest that safety strategies should be employed to reduce risky driving tendencies that could be achieved by shaping or adapting the mediators (reducing sensation seeking and enhancing safety attitudes). This goal could be reached by starting to educate children about this at an early stage when they are at school as well as by social learning and safety awareness campaigns.

The mediation effect of aggressive and risky driving

Several studies have related aggressive and risky driving behaviours to accidents. However, the cognitive processes associated with driving aggression have received very little attention in the scientific literature. With the aim of shedding light on this topic, the present research was carried out on a sample of 414 participants in order to validate the Driver's Angry Thoughts Questionnaire (DATQ) with a sample of Spanish drivers and to test the hypothesis of the mediation effect of aggressive and risky driving on the relationship between drivers' angry thoughts and crash-related events. The results showed a good fit with the five-factor model of the questionnaire (Judgmental and Disbelieving Thinking, Pejorative Labelling and Verbally Aggressive Thinking, Revenge and Retaliatory Thinking, Physically Aggressive Thinking, and Coping Self-Instruction). Moreover, slight gender differences were observed in drivers' angry thoughts, with women scoring higher than men (η²=0.03). However, younger drivers had higher scores than older drivers in general (η²=0.06). Finally, several mediation effects of aggressive driving and risky driving on the relationship between aggressive thinking and the crash-related events were found. Implications of the results for research in traffic psychology and clinical assessment of aggressive drivers as well as limitations of the study are discussed.

Literature review on risky driving videos on YouTube: Unknown effects and areas for concern?

OBJECTIVE

Entry of terms reflective of extreme risky driving behaviors into the YouTube website yields millions of videos. The majority of the top 20 highly subscribed automotive YouTube websites are focused on high-performance vehicles, high speed, and often risky driving. Moreover, young men are the heaviest users of online video sharing sites, overall streaming more videos, and watching them longer than any other group. The purpose of this article is to review the literature on YouTube videos and risky driving.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed using the following specialized database sources-Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, ERIC, and Google Scholar-for the years 2005-2015 for articles in the English language. Search words included "YouTube AND driving," "YouTube AND speeding," "YouTube AND racing."

RESULTS

No published research was found on the content of risky driving videos or on the effects of these videos on viewers. This literature review presents the current state of our published knowledge on the topic, which includes a review of the effects of mass media on risky driving cognitions; attitudes and behavior; similarities and differences between mass and social media; information on the YouTube platform; psychological theories that could support YouTube's potential effects on driving behavior; and 2 examples of risky driving behaviors ("sidewalk skiing" and "ghost riding the whip") suggestive of varying levels of modeling behavior in subsequent YouTube videos.

CONCLUSIONS

Every month about 1 billion individuals are reported to view YouTube videos (ebizMBA Guide 2015 ) and young men are the heaviest users, overall streaming more YouTube videos and watching them longer than women and other age groups (Nielsen 2011 ). This group is also the most dangerous group in traffic, engaging in more per capita violations and experiencing more per capita injuries and fatalities (e.g., Parker et al. 1995 ; Reason et al. 1990 ; Transport Canada 2015 ; World Health Organization 2015 ). YouTube also contains many channels depicting risky driving videos. The time has come for the traffic safety community to begin exploring these relationships.

Stress-related psychosocial factors at work, fatigue, and risky driving behavior in bus rapid transport (BRT) drivers

INTRODUCTION

There is consistent scientific evidence that professional drivers constitute an occupational group that is highly exposed to work related stressors. Furthermore, several recent studies associate work stress and fatigue with unsafe and counterproductive work behaviors. This study examines the association between stress-related work conditions of Bus Rapid Transport (BRT) drivers and risky driving behaviors; and examines whether fatigue is a mechanism that mediates the association between the two.

METHOD

A sample of 524 male Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) operators were drawn from four transport companies in Bogotá, Colombia. The participants answered a survey which included an adapted version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) for BRT operators, as well as the Effort-Reward Imbalance and Job Content Questionnaires, the Subjective Fatigue subscale of the Checklist Individual Strength (CIS) and the Need for Recovery after Work Scale (NFR).

RESULTS

Utilizing Structural Equation Models (SEM) it was found that risky driving behaviors in BRT operators could be predicted through job strain, effort-reward imbalance and social support at work. It was also found that fatigue and need for recovery fully mediate the associations between job strain and risky driving, and between social support and risky driving, but not the association between effort/reward imbalance (ERI) and risky driving.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that a) stress related working conditions (Job Strain, Social Support and ERI) are relevant predictors of risky driving in BRT operators, and b) that fatigue is the mechanism which links another kind of stress related to working conditions (job strain and low social support) with risky driving. The mechanism by which ERI increases risky driving in BRT operators remains unexplained.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

This research suggests that in addition to the individual centered stress-reduction occupational programs, fatigue management interventions aimed to changing some working conditions may reduce risky driving behaviors and promote safety in the professional drivers' jobs and on the road.

An examination of the relationship between measures of impulsivity and risky simulated driving amongst young drivers

The risky driving of young drivers may owe in part to youthful motivations (such as experience-seeking, authority rebellion, desire for peer approval) combined with incompletely developed impulse control. Although self-reported impulsiveness has been positively associated with self-reports of risky driving, results based on objective measures of response inhibition (e.g., Go/No-go tasks) have been inconclusive. The present study examined interrelationships between measures of response inhibition, self-report impulsiveness scales, and responses to events during a simulated drive that were designed to detect impulsive, unsafe behaviours (e.g., turning across on-coming traffic). Participants were 72 first-year Psychology students. More speeding and "Unsafe" responding to critical events during simulated driving were associated with poorer impulse control as assessed by commission errors during a Go/No-Go task. These results consolidate evidence for a relationship between impulse control and risky driving amongst young drivers.

Young driver risky behaviour and predictors of crash risk in Australia, New Zealand and Colombia: Same but different?

Young drivers remain overrepresented in road crashes around the world, with road injury the leading cause of death among adolescents. In addition, the majority of road traffic crashes, fatalities and injuries occur in low- and middle-income countries. All young drivers are at risk due to a breadth of age- and inexperience-related factors; however it is well recognised that young drivers may also intentionally engage in risky driving behaviours which increase their crash risk. The aim of this paper is to examine the self-reported risky driving behaviour of young drivers in Australia, New Zealand (high-income countries), and Colombia (middle-income country), and to explore the utility of a crash risk assessment model in these three countries. Young drivers aged 16-25 years completed the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS), in addition to self-reporting crash involvement and driving offences. A hierarchical segmentation analysis via decision trees was used to study the relationship between self-reported crashes and risky driving. Young drivers in Colombia reported more risky driving than young drivers in New Zealand, and considerably more risky driving than young drivers in Australia. Significant differences among and across countries in individual BYNDS items were found, and 23.5% of all participants reported they had been involved in a road crash. Handheld mobile phone usage was the strongest predictor of crashes, followed by driving after drinking alcohol, and carrying friends as passengers. Country of origin predicted mobile phone usage, with New Zealand and Colombia grouped in the same decision tree branch which implies no significant differences in the behaviour between these countries. Despite cultural differences in licensing programs and enforcement, young drivers reported engaging in a similar breadth of risky behaviours. Road crashes were explained by mobile phone usage, drink driving and driving with passengers, suggesting interventions should target these three risk factors. Whilst New Zealand and Australia have implemented graduated driver licensing programs, are geographical neighbours, and are high-income countries, the finding that behaviours of young drivers in New Zealand and Colombia were more similar than those of young drivers in New Zealand and Australia merits further investigation.

An empirical analysis of risk-taking in car driving and other aspects of life

The link between risk-taking behavior in various aspects of life has long been an area of debate among economists and psychologists. Using an extensive data set from Denmark, this study provides an empirical investigation of the link between risky driving and risk taking in other aspects of life, including risk-taking behavior in financial and labor-market decisions. Specifically, we establish significant positive correlations between individuals' risk-taking behavior in car driving and their risk-taking behavior in financial and labor-market decisions. However, we find that the strength of these correlations vary significantly between genders, and across risk decisions. These correlations and their differences across genders get stronger when we construct more "homogenous" groups by restricting our sample to those individuals with at least some stock-market participation. Overall, the empirical results in this study suggest that risk-taking behavior in various aspects of life can be associated, and our results corroborate previous evidence on the link between individuals' risk preferences across various aspects of life. This implies that individuals' driving behavior, which is commonly unobservable, can be more fully understood using observable labor market and financial decisions of individuals.

Risky driving and sexual behaviors as developmental outcomes of co-occurring substance use and antisocial behavior

PURPOSE

To examine the associations between substance use and antisocial behavior trajectories and seven risky behaviors over time.

METHOD

Data were collected from a high-risk sample of adolescents followed into young adulthood. Five trajectory classes, identified based on dual development of substance use and antisocial behavior symptoms, were used to predict three risky driving and four risky sexual behaviors.

RESULTS

In this high-risk sample (n=530), participants reported notably high overall rates of reckless driving (55.5%) and unprotected sex under the influence (44.8%) in the past year. Risky behaviors that are typically of low base rates in population-based studies were also elevated, with 8.8% reporting past-year driving under the influence (DUI) charge, 17.6% reporting lifetime sexually transmitted infection (STI), and 10.4% reporting lifetime injection drug use. The Dual Chronic class had the highest levels of all seven risky behaviors, and were 3-4 times more likely to report risky driving, lifetime STI, and injection drug use than the Relatively Resolved class. Rates of past-year reckless driving and DUI were elevated among classes with persistent antisocial behavior, whereas rates of DUI, DUI charge, and unprotected sex under the influence were elevated among classes with persistent substance use.

CONCLUSIONS

Young adults with persistent co-occurring substance use and antisocial behavior engage in multiple very costly risky behaviors. Differential associations between risky behaviors and trajectory classes highlight the need for targeted interventions.

The multidimensional driving style inventory a decade later: Review of the literature and re-evaluation of the scale

The Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory (MDSI; Taubman - Ben-Ari, Mikulincer, & Gillath, 2004a), a self-report questionnaire assessing four broad driving styles, has been in use for the last ten years. During that time, numerous studies have explored the associations between the MDSI factors and sociodemographic and driving-related variables. The current paper employs two large data sets to summarize the accumulated knowledge, examining MDSI factors in samples of young drivers aged 17-21 (Study 1, n=1436) and older drivers aged 22-84 (Study 2, n=3409). Findings indicate that driving-related indicators are coherently and systematically related to the four driving styles in the expected directions, revalidating the structure of the MDSI. The results also help clarify the relationships between the driving styles and variables such as gender, ethnicity, car ownership, age, and experience, and suggest that driving styles are largely unaffected by sociodemographic characteristics, except for gender and ethnicity, and appear to represent a relatively stable and universal trait. The two studies highlight the validity and reliability of the MDSI, attesting to its practical value as a tool for purposes of research, evaluation, and intervention.

Attitudes and behaviors towards risky driving among adolescents in Saudi Arabia

Background and Objectives

The main objective of the paper is to investigate perceptions and attitudes of school youth concerning risky driving behaviors (i.e.: Tafheet) in Saudi Arabia.

Design and Setting

This was a school-based cross-sectional study of adolescents in Riyadh that employed a multistage probability sampling scheme.

Subjects and Methods

The self-administered survey included questions adapted from the school-based studies conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States. The survey inquired about adolescents' behaviors and attitudes toward driving, perceptions of school and family, and leisure time activities.

Results

Nearly 40% of the students surveyed reported engaging in the risky driving behavior called Tafheet. Fifty-one percent of those who engage in dangerous activities also reported engaging in Tafheet. A higher proportion (70%) among those who believe Tafheet is a talent or a cool activity also engaged in Tafheet. Multivariate analyses indicate that students who are willing to engage in dangerous activities even when they are known to be dangerous (OR = 2.7; 95% CI = 1.55–4.72), those who think there is no harm in not wearing seat belts are at higher speeds (OR = 2.77; 95% CI = 1.24–6.21), and those who use a mobile telephone while driving are nearly three times (OR = 2.96; 95% CI = 1.41–6.23) at risk for engaging in Tafheet. Lack of respect towards traffic laws is also a risk factor.

Conclusion

Our study unequivocally points to pro-attitudes and behavior including a daring personality, not wearing a seat belt and using a mobile telephone while driving are significant factors associated with risky driving activity. Our study calls for a strategic intervention plan to change the culture of risky driving through a structured and stringent driving curriculum in school settings. A curriculum of this nature is currently non-existent in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Multilevel and multifaceted interventions may hold great promise in reducing unintended motor vehicle injuries and changing the culture as a whole.

The association between driving anger and driving outcomes: A meta-analysis of evidence from the past twenty years

Through the use of meta-analysis, this study investigated the relationships between driving anger and five types of driving outcomes (aggressive driving, risky driving, driving errors, near misses and accidents). The moderating effects of three variables (age, study publication year, and participants' country of origin) on these relationships were also examined. A total of 51 studies published over the past two decades met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis. The results showed that driving anger significantly predicted all three types of aberrant driving, with zero-order correlations of 0.312, 0.243, and 0.179 with aggressive driving, risky driving and driving errors, respectively. The correlations between driving anger and accident-related conditions, though at relatively weaker levels, were still statistically significant. Tests for effects of the moderating variables suggested that driving anger was a stronger predictor of risky driving among young drivers than among old drivers. Also, the anger-aggression association was found to decrease over time and vary across countries. The implications of the results and the directions for future research are discussed.

Drivers who self-estimate lower blood alcohol concentrations are riskier drivers after drinking

RATIONALE

Alcohol increases the tendency for risky driving in some individuals but not others. Little is known about the factors underlying this individual difference. Studies find that those who underestimate their blood alcohol concentration (BAC) following a dose of alcohol tend to be more impulsive and report greater willingness to drive after drinking than those who estimate their BACs to be greater than their actual BAC. BAC underestimation could contribute to risky driving behavior following alcohol as such drivers might perceive little impairment in their driving ability and thus no need for caution.

OBJECTIVES

This study was designed to test the relationship between drivers' BAC estimations following a dose of alcohol or a placebo and the degree of risky driving they displayed during a simulated driving test.

METHODS

Forty adult drivers performed a simulated driving test and estimated their blood alcohol concentration after receiving a dose of alcohol (0.65 g/kg for men and 0.56 g/kg for women) or a placebo.

RESULTS

Alcohol increased risk-taking and impaired driving skill. Those who estimated their BAC to be lower were the riskiest drivers following both alcohol and placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

The tendency to estimate lower BACs could support a series of high-risk decisions, regardless of one's actual BAC. This could include the decision to drive after drinking.

Factors affecting stability and change in risky driving from late adolescence to the late twenties

The risky driving tendencies of young drivers has been extensively researched, but much less is known about across-time patterns of risky driving behavior and the factors which influence these. This study identified factors associated with stable, increasing and decreasing risky driving trajectories among 751 Australian drivers participating in an ongoing longitudinal study. Five groups were formed on the basis of participants' patterns of risky driving from 19-20 to 27-28 years (i.e., stable low-risk, stable speeding, stable high-risk, increasing and decreasing). Very few participants exhibited a stable high-risk pattern. Characteristics that differentiated the different across-time groups were identified using Multinomial Logistic Regression. The most consistent correlates of risky driving patterns were antisocial behavior, binge drinking and relationship status. Sex, school completion, temperament, civic engagement, and antisocial peer friendships were also correlated with different across-time patterns. The implications of these findings for road safety are discussed.

Assessments of risky driving: a Go/No-Go simulator driving task to evaluate risky decision-making and associated behavioral patterns

This study sought to develop and validate a Go/No-Go Simulator Driving Task (G/NG-SDT) to evaluate driver risky decision-making and associated behavioral assessments at a situation-specific level. Eighty-four participants were instructed to complete a route in as short time as possible, but avoiding any violations or crashes. To achieve this aim, they had to decide to go or wait in the dilemma scenes, paired with the baseline scenes in several scenarios. High-risk drivers with more Go decisions demonstrated more violations, in both simulator tasks and real road driving, as well as higher scores of Driving Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) violations and more Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) pumps. These high-risk drivers also showed distinguishable behavioral patterns in simulator driving, moderated by the specific driving situations (e.g. scenario and scene). Several behavior assessments were consistently distinguishable in all tested situations, qualified as robust indictors to predict risk-taking in more general driving situations.

Simulated driving performance under alcohol: Effects on driver-risk versus driver-skill

BACKGROUND

Those who place their vehicles closer to others on the roadway are said to have high risk acceptance, and this contributes to motor vehicle crashes. However, the effect of alcohol on this risky driving behavior is understudied. Behavioral mechanisms that contribute to risky driving are also not well understood. Further, whether increased risk-taking behavior in a driver co-occurs with pronounced impairment in the driver's skill is unknown.

METHODS

The study examined the effect of alcohol on driver risk and skill and whether riskier drivers were also those who showed high skill impairment. The relationship between driving behavior and inhibitory control was also tested. Participants completed two driving simulations. In the first drive test, risky driving was encouraged and in the second test, skill-based performance was emphasized. The cued go/no-go task provided a measure inhibitory control. Tests were completed under a 0.65g/kg alcohol and 0.0g/kg (placebo) dose of alcohol.

RESULTS

Alcohol impaired a measure of driving skill and increased driver risk taking. It was also found that riskier drivers were not necessarily those who showed the greatest impairments in skill. Poorer inhibitory control was associated with greater driver risk in the sober state.

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol-induced risk-taking behaviors can be dissociable from impairing effects on driver skill and poor inhibitory control is selectively related to risky driving. As such, a distinction between driver risk and driver skill needs to be made in the investigation of problems concerning DUI-related accidents and fatalities in future research.

Cross-domain influences on youth risky driving behaviors: A developmental cascade analysis

We apply a developmental cascade approach to study the longitudinal, cross-domain effects of negative family influence, deviant peer associations, and individual substance use on risky driving among a sample of low-income African American youth. Participants (N = 681) were followed from age 16 to age 21. Using structural equation modeling, we examined conceptual models of pathways to risky driving. Results indicated strong associations between domains within time points among negative family environment, deviant peer associations, individual substance use, and risky driving. Deviant peer associations were related to future risky driving. Alcohol and marijuana use also predicted later deviant peer relationships. The pathways were observed both between age 16 and 18 and between age 18 and 21. Consistent with the cascade hypotheses, we found that risks in one domain manifested as risks in the same domain across time in addition to spreading to other domains.

Validation of the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale (BYNDS) in a New Zealand young driver population

The Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, the BYNDS (Scott-Parker et al., 2010), is a reliable and valid self-report 44-item instrument which explores the frequency of a breadth of risky driving behaviours which appear to place young and novice drivers at an increased risk of road crash injury. As part of a larger collaborative research project, the Australian-developed BYNDS was piloted in a sample of 20 young New Zealand drivers n=14 aged 16-18 years, 9 males; n=6 aged 19-24 years, 2 males. The wording of 21 BYNDS items was modified to reflect the cultural context of the participating New Zealand drivers. The refined BYNDS was applied in a sample of 325 young drivers n=116 aged 16-18 years, 65 males; n=209 aged 19-24 years, 98 males, and the factor structure examined, including exploratory factor analysis for each gender. The 5-factor structure of the BYNDS was supported, with young drivers reporting considerable engagement in risky driving exposure, moderate engagement in transient violations and mood-related driving, and less fixed violations and driving misjudgements. Risky driving exposure was predictive of self-reported crash involvement for both males and females, suggesting targeted intervention regarding when, and the circumstances under which, the young driver is on the road.

Parents' perceptions of the family climate for road safety

The current study examined the applicability of the Family Climate for Road Safety Scale (FCRSS; Taubman-Ben-Ari and Katz-Ben-Ami, 2013) to the parents of young drivers. The sample consisted of 549 parents and 234 of their children, all of whom completed the FCRSS. In addition, the parents completed the multidimensional driving style inventory (MDSI; Taubman-Ben-Ari et al., 2004) and provided background data (e.g., age, gender). Confirmatory factor analysis supported a slightly modified structure of the scale for parents. Examination of the correlations revealed significant weak to strong associations between parents' scores on the various FCRSS dimensions on the one hand, and their self-reported driving styles and offspring's perceptions of the family climate for safety on the other. The findings indicate that the FCRSS is suitable for use with the parents of young drivers, and that perceptions of the family climate are shared by the two generations. Furthermore, they show that family climate is related to parents' customary driving behavior, with the careful driving style positively related to the positive dimensions of the FCRSS. The discussion stresses the importance of the parents' influence on the manner in which their children drive, and the multifaceted nature of this influence. Moreover, it indicates the potential value of the FCRSS, both for research and for designing interventions and measuring their effectiveness.

The effect of family climate on risky driving of young novices: the moderating role of attitude and locus of control

The aim of the study was to examine the relative importance of young novice drivers' family climate on their driving behavior. A sample of young novice drivers (N=171) between the age of 17 and 24, who held their permanent (or temporary) driver's license for no longer than one year, participated. The questionnaire included items related to the participants' family climate, 3 socio-cognitive determinants (i.e., attitude, locus of control and social norm), and risky driving behaviors. We expected both family climate and the socio-cognitive determinants to exert a direct effect on risky driving. Furthermore we hypothesized that the socio-cognitive determinants would moderate the impact of family climate on risky driving. The results showed that the effect of family climate on risky driving only originated from one single factor (i.e., noncommitment). Besides that, the results confirmed the importance of the three socio-cognitive determinants to the degree that attitude, locus of control, and social norm significantly predicted the self-reported risky driving. In line of what we hypothesized, attitude moderated the relationship between noncommitment and risky driving. Lastly, we found an unexpected three-way interaction which indicated that locus of control moderated the relation between noncommitment and risky driving only when young drivers' attitude was risk-supportive. We recommend scholars and practitioners to take into account the interaction between external sources of influence (such as an individual's family climate) and more personally oriented dispositions (such as an individual's attitude, social norm and locus of control) when trying to explain and change young novices' risky driving.

Personality and attitudes as predictors of risky driving among older drivers

Although there are several studies on the effects of personality and attitudes on risky driving among young drivers, related research in older drivers is scarce. The present study assessed a model of personality-attitudes-risky driving in a large sample of active older drivers. A cross-sectional design was used, and structured and anonymous questionnaires were completed by 485 older Italian drivers (Mean age=68.1, SD=6.2, 61.2% males). The measures included personality traits, attitudes toward traffic safety, risky driving (errors, lapses, and traffic violations), and self-reported crash involvement and number of issued traffic tickets in the last 12 months. Structural equation modeling showed that personality traits predicted both directly and indirectly traffic violations, errors, and lapses. More positive attitudes toward traffic safety negatively predicted risky driving. In turn, risky driving was positively related to self-reported crash involvement and higher number of issued traffic tickets. Our findings suggest that theoretical models developed to account for risky driving of younger drivers may also apply in the older drivers, and accordingly be used to inform safe driving interventions for this age group.

Stability of risky driving from late adolescence to early adulthood

This study examined the stability of risky driving behaviour from late adolescence to early adulthood among 823 young Australian drivers participating in an ongoing longitudinal study. This issue was explored by examining the stability of risky driving between the ages of 19-20 and 23-24 years (1) across the cohort and (2) among individuals. Focusing on cohort-wide trends, a modest reduction in the occurrence of speeding was observed across the sample between 19-20 and 23-24 years. However, drink-driving increased markedly over this period, and driving without a seatbelt or helmet for part of a trip also rose. Rates of other risky driving behaviours remained relatively unchanged. With regard to trends among individuals, while a decrease was evident in the risky driving propensities of many who had been classified as moderate or high risky drivers at age 19-20, 48% of the former group, and 77% of the latter group, still exhibited risky driving tendencies at 23-24 years. Together, these findings suggest a fair degree of stability in risky driving from late adolescence to early adulthood among this sample of Australian youth, highlighting the continuing need for road safety initiatives targeting young drivers beyond their first years of licensure.

Driving anger in Malaysia

The present study examined the types of situations that cause Malaysian drivers to become angry. The 33-item version of the driver anger scale (Deffenbacher et al., 1994) was used to investigate driver anger amongst a sample of 339 drivers. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the fit of the original six-factor model (discourtesy, traffic obstructions, hostile gestures, slow driving, illegal driving and police presence), after removing one item and allowing three error pairs to covary, was satisfactory. Female drivers reported more anger, than males, caused by traffic obstruction and hostile gestures. Age was also negatively related to five (discourtesy, traffic obstructions, hostile gestures, slow driving and police presence) of the six factors and also to the total DAS score. Furthermore, although they were not directly related to crash involvement, several of the six forms of driving anger were significantly related to the crash-related conditions of: near misses, loss of concentration, having lost control of a vehicle and being ticketed. Overall the pattern of findings made in the present research were broadly similar to those from Western countries, indicating that the DAS is a valid measure of driving anger even among non-European based cultures.

Young novice drivers and the risky behaviours of parents and friends during the provisional (intermediate) licence phase: a brief report

PURPOSE

While there is research indicating that many factors influence the young novice driver's increased risk of road crash injury during the earliest stages of their independent driving, there is a need to further understand the relationship between the perceived risky driving behaviour of parents and friends and the risky behaviour of drivers with a Provisional (intermediate) licence.

METHOD

As part of a larger research project, 378 drivers aged 17-25 years (M=18.22, SD=1.59, 113 males) with a Provisional licence completed an online survey exploring the perceived riskiness of their parents' and friends' driving, and the extent to which they pattern (i.e. base) their driving behaviour on the driving of their parents and friends.

RESULTS

Young drivers who reported patterning their driving on their friends, and who reported they perceived their friends to be risky drivers, reported more risky driving. The risky driving behaviour of young male drivers was associated with the perceived riskiness of their fathers' driving, whilst for female drivers the perceived riskiness of their mothers' driving approached significance.

CONCLUSIONS

The development and application of countermeasures targeting the risky behaviour of same-sex parents appears warranted by the robust research findings. In addition, countermeasures need to encourage young people in general to be non-risky drivers; targeting the negative influence of risky peer groups specifically. Social norms interventions may minimise the influence of potentially-overestimated riskiness.

Parental influence on adolescent compliance with graduated driver licensing conditions and crashes as a restricted licensed driver: New Zealand drivers study

AIM

To examine the influence of parental knowledge of, and support for graduated driver licensing (GDL) conditions, parental management of adolescent driving and parental driving behaviour on adolescent compliance with GDL conditions and crashes as a restricted licence driver.

METHOD

This research was part of the New Zealand Drivers Study (NZDS), a prospective cohort study of 3992 newly licensed car drivers. NZDS participants were recruited at the learner licence stage, with follow-up aligned with the GDL stages. At the restricted licence stage 1200 parents of NZDS adolescents, aged 15-17 years at learner licensure, were recruited and completed interviews. 895 of these adolescents progressed to their full licence and completed the full licence interview. These 895 parent-adolescent pairs were the study population in this research. Topics examined included parental knowledge of, and support for GDL conditions, management of adolescent driving (driving rules, adolescent vehicle ownership, delaying licensure), and their own driving behaviours. Outcomes examined were adolescent compliance with GDL restricted licence conditions (night-time and passenger), and crashes as a driver during the restricted licence stage.

RESULTS

After controlling for other variables, factors independently associated with adolescent low compliance with GDL conditions were: low parental knowledge of conditions, parents' implementing few driving rules, adolescent vehicle ownership, and parent crash involvement. Factors independently associated with adolescents being a crash involved driver were: parents' actively delaying licensure, adolescent vehicle ownership, and parent crash involvement.

CONCLUSION

There is increasing recognition of the importance of parental involvement in adolescent driving. The results show that parents are influential in determining adolescent compliance with GDL and risk of crash. Parents can have considerable positive influence on their adolescent's driving through ensuring compliance with the components of GDL, limiting vehicle ownership and by modelling safe driving behaviours.

Evaluating a model linking assessed parent factors to four domains of youth risky driving

Motor vehicle collisions are the leading cause of death in youth aged 15-19. Research has consistently shown that driver education programs do not result in safer youth driving. Indeed, the biggest predictor of collisions involving youth is parental history of collisions. The current study examined how parental modeling of and teaching about risky driving behaviors related to youth practices within four domains of risky driving (aggressive, substance use, distracted, moving violations), and evaluated whether the Prototype-Willingness Model explains links from parent to teen driving practices. Participants (N=432) were undergraduate students (mean age 18 years, age range 17-22 years) who had obtained their G2 driver's license within the past year; the G2 driver's license allows youth to drive alone on all municipal roads, with some restrictions on their blood alcohol level and the number of passengers they can carry. Results revealed that parental modeling was more predictive than parental teaching for all domains of risky driving examined. Youth whose parents modeled risky driving behaviors were found to be more likely to have engaged in those risky driving behaviors in the past, as well as to be more willing to engage in the behaviors in the future. The Prototype-Willingness Model was not a good fit to explain these relations. Findings from this study highlight the role parents play in the development of youth risky driving practices.

Thrill and adventure seeking as a modifier of the relationship of perceived risk with risky driving among young drivers

Risky driving contributes to road trauma, a leading cause of mortality among young people. Health-relevant behaviour models suggest a negative relationship between risky driving and perceived risk of its outcomes. However, high sensation seekers may value the "thrill" of the risk, and positive associations between sensation seeking and risky driving have been observed. This is the first study to examine whether aspects of sensation seeking modify the relationship between perceived risk and risky driving. Young drivers in metropolitan Sydney and rural New South Wales [NSW] (n=797) completed a survey relating to one of the four risky driving behaviours (speeding, drink-driving, driving while fatigued, and failing to wear a seatbelt). Results suggest that the Thrill and Adventure Seeking subscale of Zuckerman's (1994) Sensation Seeking Scale moderate the relationship of perceived risk with risky driving - indicating a negative relationship for low-scores, but not high-scorers, on the TAS subscale. Thus, road safety campaigns that emphasize the riskiness of a particular behaviour may be of limited benefit to thrill and adventure seekers.

Introducing a multivariate model for predicting driving performance: the role of driving anger and personal characteristics

INTRODUCTION

Maladaptive driving is an important source of self-inflicted accidents and this driving style could include high speeds, speeding violations, and poor lateral control of the vehicle. The literature suggests that certain groups of drivers, such as novice drivers, males, highly motivated drivers, and those who frequently experience anger in traffic, tend to exhibit more maladaptive driving patterns compared to other drivers. Remarkably, no coherent framework is currently available to describe the relationships and distinct influences of these factors.

METHOD

We conducted two studies with the aim of creating a multivariate model that combines the aforementioned factors, describes their relationships, and predicts driving performance more precisely. The studies employed different techniques to elicit emotion and different tracks designed to explore the driving behaviors of participants in potentially anger-provoking situations. Study 1 induced emotions with short film clips. Study 2 confronted the participants with potentially anger-inducing traffic situations during the simulated drive.

RESULTS

In both studies, participants who experienced high levels of anger drove faster and exhibited greater longitudinal and lateral acceleration. Furthermore, multiple linear regressions and path-models revealed that highly motivated male drivers displayed the same behavior independent of their emotional state. The results indicate that anger and specific risk characteristics lead to maladaptive changes in important driving parameters and that drivers with these specific risk factors are prone to experience more anger while driving, which further worsens their driving performance. Driver trainings and anger management courses will profit from these findings because they help to improve the validity of assessments of anger related driving behavior.

A comparison of the Driving Anger Scale and the Propensity for Angry Driving Scale

The present study investigated the factor structures of the 14-item version of the DAS (Driving Anger Scale) and the Propensity for Angry Driving Scale (PADS) using a sample of New Zealand drivers drawn from the general population. The two scales were also investigated with regards to their relationships with general trait anger, risky driving behaviour, along with crash involvement and a variety of crash-related conditions. Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported both scales as unidimensional, although the PADS was reduced from a 19-item to an 18-item scale. Both the PADS and DAS were significantly related to trait anger, risky driving behaviour and near-misses. However, once the influence of the demographic variables and trait anger had been partialled out, the addition of the PADS and DAS made a significant contribution to predicting violations, but it was only the PADS which was significant. In contrast, after the demographic variables and trait anger had been partialled out, the addition of the DAS and PADS again made a significant contribution to the prediction of near-misses, but this time it was only the DAS which made a significant contribution. The present study clearly shows that both scales are robust measures, measuring similar, but slightly different aspects of driving anger.