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Cabrera Cesar E, Lopez-Lopez L, Lara E, Hidalgo-San Juan MV, Parrado Romero C, Palencia JLRS, Martín-Montañez E, Garcia-Fernandez M. Serum Biomarkers in Differential Diagnosis of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis and Connective Tissue Disease-Associated Interstitial Lung Disease. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10143167. [PMID: 34300333 PMCID: PMC8307287 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10143167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The goal of this study is to determine whether Advanced glycosylated end-products (AGE), Advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP) and Matrix metalloproteinase 7 (MMP7) could be used as differential biomarkers for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and connective tissue disease-associated interstitial lung disease (CTD-ILD). Method: Seventy-three patients were enrolled: 29 with IPF, 14 with CTD-ILD, and 30 healthy controls. The study included a single visit by participants. A blood sample was drawn and serum was analysed for AGE using spectrofluorimetry, AOPP by spectrophotometry, and MMP7 using sandwich-type enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Results: AGE, AOPP and MMP7 serum levels were significantly higher in both IPF and CTD-ILD patients versus healthy controls; and AGE was also significantly elevated in CTD-ILD compared to the IPF group. AGE plasma levels clearly distinguished CTD-ILD patients from healthy participants (AUC = 0.95; 95% IC 0.86–1), whereas in IPF patients, the distinction was moderate (AUC = 0.78; 95% IC 0.60–0.97). Conclusion: In summary, our results provide support for the potential value of serum AGE, AOPP and MMP7 concentrations as diagnostic biomarkers in IPF and CTD-ILD to differentiate between ILD patients and healthy controls. Furthermore, this study provides evidence, for the first time, for the possible use of AGE as a differential diagnostic biomarker to distinguish between IPF and CTD-ILD. The value of these biomarkers as additional tools in a multidisciplinary approach to IPF and CTD-ILD diagnosis needs to be considered and further explored. Multicentre studies are necessary to understand the role of AGE in differential diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Cabrera Cesar
- Respiratory Service, Universitary Virgen de la Victoria Hospital, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (L.L.-L.); (M.V.H.-S.J.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-646-905-201
| | - Lidia Lopez-Lopez
- Respiratory Service, Universitary Virgen de la Victoria Hospital, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (L.L.-L.); (M.V.H.-S.J.)
| | - Estrella Lara
- Department of Physiology and Human Histology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (E.L.); (C.P.R.); (M.G.-F.)
| | | | - Concepcion Parrado Romero
- Department of Physiology and Human Histology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (E.L.); (C.P.R.); (M.G.-F.)
| | - Jose Luis Royo Sánchez Palencia
- Department of Biochemistry, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain;
| | - Elisa Martín-Montañez
- Department of Pharmacology and Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain;
| | - Maria Garcia-Fernandez
- Department of Physiology and Human Histology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Málaga, Biomedical Research Institute of Málaga, 29010 Málaga, Spain; (E.L.); (C.P.R.); (M.G.-F.)
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Nucera F, Lo Bello F, Shen SS, Ruggeri P, Coppolino I, Di Stefano A, Stellato C, Casolaro V, Hansbro PM, Adcock IM, Caramori G. Role of Atypical Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors Pathways in the Pathogenesis of COPD. Curr Med Chem 2021; 28:2577-2653. [PMID: 32819230 DOI: 10.2174/0929867327999200819145327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) represents a heightened inflammatory response in the lung generally resulting from tobacco smoking-induced recruitment and activation of inflammatory cells and/or activation of lower airway structural cells. Several mediators can modulate activation and recruitment of these cells, particularly those belonging to the chemokines (conventional and atypical) family. There is emerging evidence for complex roles of atypical chemokines and their receptors (such as high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), antimicrobial peptides, receptor for advanced glycosylation end products (RAGE) or toll-like receptors (TLRs)) in the pathogenesis of COPD, both in the stable disease and during exacerbations. Modulators of these pathways represent potential novel therapies for COPD and many are now in preclinical development. Inhibition of only a single atypical chemokine or receptor may not block inflammatory processes because there is redundancy in this network. However, there are many animal studies that encourage studies for modulating the atypical chemokine network in COPD. Thus, few pharmaceutical companies maintain a significant interest in developing agents that target these molecules as potential antiinflammatory drugs. Antibody-based (biological) and small molecule drug (SMD)-based therapies targeting atypical chemokines and/or their receptors are mostly at the preclinical stage and their progression to clinical trials is eagerly awaited. These agents will most likely enhance our knowledge about the role of atypical chemokines in COPD pathophysiology and thereby improve COPD management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Nucera
- Department of Biomedical, Dental, Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Pugliatti Square 1, 98122 Messina, Italy
| | - Federica Lo Bello
- Department of Biomedical, Dental, Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Pugliatti Square 1, 98122 Messina, Italy
| | - Sj S Shen
- Faculty of Science, Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute, University of Technology, Ultimo, Sydney, Australia
| | - Paolo Ruggeri
- Department of Biomedical, Dental, Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Pugliatti Square 1, 98122 Messina, Italy
| | - Irene Coppolino
- Department of Biomedical, Dental, Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Pugliatti Square 1, 98122 Messina, Italy
| | - Antonino Di Stefano
- Division of Pneumology, Cyto- Immunopathology Laboratory of the Cardio-Respiratory System, Clinical Scientific Institutes Maugeri IRCCS, Veruno, Italy
| | - Cristiana Stellato
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, Salerno Medical School, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Casolaro
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, Salerno Medical School, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy
| | - Phil M Hansbro
- Faculty of Science, Centre for Inflammation, Centenary Institute, University of Technology, Ultimo, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ian M Adcock
- Airway Disease Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gaetano Caramori
- Department of Biomedical, Dental, Morphological and Functional Imaging Sciences (BIOMORF), University of Messina, Pugliatti Square 1, 98122 Messina, Italy
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Morris G, Bortolasci CC, Puri BK, Olive L, Marx W, O'Neil A, Athan E, Carvalho AF, Maes M, Walder K, Berk M. The pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2: A suggested model and therapeutic approach. Life Sci 2020; 258:118166. [PMID: 32739471 PMCID: PMC7392886 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, a model is proposed of the pathophysiological processes of COVID-19 starting from the infection of human type II alveolar epithelial cells (pneumocytes) by SARS-CoV-2 and culminating in the development of ARDS. The innate immune response to infection of type II alveolar epithelial cells leads both to their death by apoptosis and pyroptosis and to alveolar macrophage activation. Activated macrophages secrete proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines and tend to polarise into the inflammatory M1 phenotype. These changes are associated with activation of vascular endothelial cells and thence the recruitment of highly toxic neutrophils and inflammatory activated platelets into the alveolar space. Activated vascular endothelial cells become a source of proinflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species (ROS) and contribute to the development of coagulopathy, systemic sepsis, a cytokine storm and ARDS. Pulmonary activated platelets are also an important source of proinflammatory cytokines and ROS, as well as exacerbating pulmonary neutrophil-mediated inflammatory responses and contributing to systemic sepsis by binding to neutrophils to form platelet-neutrophil complexes (PNCs). PNC formation increases neutrophil recruitment, activation priming and extraversion of these immune cells into inflamed pulmonary tissue, thereby contributing to ARDS. Sequestered PNCs cause the development of a procoagulant and proinflammatory environment. The contribution to ARDS of increased extracellular histone levels, circulating mitochondrial DNA, the chromatin protein HMGB1, decreased neutrophil apoptosis, impaired macrophage efferocytosis, the cytokine storm, the toll-like receptor radical cycle, pyroptosis, necroinflammation, lymphopenia and a high Th17 to regulatory T lymphocyte ratio are detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerwyn Morris
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Chiara C. Bortolasci
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia,Deakin University, Centre for Molecular and Medical Research, School of Medicine, Geelong, Australia,Corresponding author at: IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, Deakin University, 75 Pigdons Road, Waurn Ponds, Victoria 3218, Australia
| | | | - Lisa Olive
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia,School of Psychology, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Wolfgang Marx
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Adrienne O'Neil
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia,Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Eugene Athan
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia,Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia
| | - Andre F. Carvalho
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia,Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada,Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), Toronto, Canada
| | - Michael Maes
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia,Department of Psychiatry, King Chulalongkorn University Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand,Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of Plovdiv, Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Ken Walder
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia,Deakin University, Centre for Molecular and Medical Research, School of Medicine, Geelong, Australia
| | - Michael Berk
- Deakin University, IMPACT – the Institute for Mental and Physical Health and Clinical Translation, School of Medicine, Barwon Health, Geelong, Australia,Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Centre for Youth Mental Health, Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health and the Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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Yang C, Yang W, He Z, He H, Yang X, Lu Y, Li H. Kaempferol Improves Lung Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury via Antiinflammation and Antioxidative Stress Regulated by SIRT1/HMGB1/NF-κB Axis. Front Pharmacol 2020; 10:1635. [PMID: 32116668 PMCID: PMC7025570 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Trauma, organ transplantation, and thromboembolism are the main causes of lung ischemia-reperfusion injury (LIRI), and new therapies and drugs are urgent to relieve LIRI. In preliminary experiment, authors found that kaempferol could improve LIRI in rats, and the current study further explored its possible mechanism. The model of rat LIRI was established and appropriate research methods were implemented. Results shown that kaempferol could significantly improve LIRI, inhibit release of inflammatory factors including interleukin (IL) 6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and reduce oxidative stress reaction. Western blotting was used to detect protein expression levels and found that kaempferol could up-regulate the protein expressions of phosphorylated (p-) p65 and p65, and down-regulate the protein expression of sirtuin (SIRT) 1. Immunofluorescence was used to localize the expression of high mobility group box (HMGB) 1 and found its higher expression in outside of nucleus. However, the above effects of kaempferol on LIRI markedly attenuated by EX 527, a selective inhibitor of SIRT 1. Taken together, we first reported the protective effect of kaempferol on rat LIRI and confirmed that kaempferol’s antiinflammation and antioxidative stress involving the SIRT1/HMGB1/NF-κB axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunli Yang
- Department of Intensive Care, Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Wenkai Yang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Central People's Hospital of Zhanjiang of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Zhaohui He
- Department of Intensive Care, Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Huiwei He
- Department of Intensive Care, Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Xiaogang Yang
- Department of Intensive Care, Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Yuanhua Lu
- Department of Intensive Care, Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Hongbo Li
- Department of Intensive Care, Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital Affiliated to Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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George C, Ducatman AM, Conway BN. Increased risk of respiratory diseases in adults with Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2018; 142:46-55. [PMID: 29802957 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2018.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Diabetes is linked with decreases in lung elasticity and in capacity to transfer carbon monoxide. Systemic inflammation, a common concern with diabetes, may contribute to airflow obstruction. We examined the association of self-reported diabetes with self-reported respiratory diseases (RDs) among 53,146 adults from the C8 Health Project. METHODS Participants were categorized into three groups: Type 1 (T1D, n = 781), Type 2 (T2D, n = 4277), or no diabetes (n = 48,088). ORs (95% CIs) for the association of diabetes with four RDs were computed: emphysema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), chronic bronchitis (CB), and asthma. Covariates controlled for were age, sex, estimated glomerular filtration rate, C-reactive protein, smoking history, BMI, and perfluorooctonaoic acid (C8). RESULTS RDs were present in 26%, 21% and 13% of persons with T1D, T2D, and no diabetes, respectively. In multivariable analyses, persons with T1D were 62% more likely to have any RD (OR: 1.62, CI: (1.36-1.93)), while those with T2D were 1.3 times as likely (OR: 1.26, CI: 1.15-1.37)). Compared to those without diabetes, in those with T1D and T2D diabetes respectively, ORs (CIs) for COPD were 1.89 (1.38-2.57), 1.45 (1.23-1.71), asthma: 1.51 (1.21-1.87), 1.38 (1.24-1.53), CB: 1.96 (1.57-2.45), 1.35 (1.20-1.52) and emphysema: 1.25 (0.85-1.82), 1.31 (1.10-1.56). Population attributable risks for any RDs associated with a history of smoking were 19%, 30%, and 26% for those with Type 1, Type 2, and no diabetes respectively. CONCLUSIONS Diabetes, more so in T1D, appears to increase RD risk. Smoking is an important risk factor, but not as informative in Type 1 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsey George
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Alan M Ducatman
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Baqiyyah N Conway
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Rural and Community Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Tyler, Tyler, TX, United States.
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6
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Ding J, Cui X, Liu Q. Emerging role of HMGB1 in lung diseases: friend or foe. J Cell Mol Med 2016; 21:1046-1057. [PMID: 28039939 PMCID: PMC5431121 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.13048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung diseases remain a serious problem for public health. The immune status of the body is considered to be the main influencing factor for the progression of lung diseases. HMGB1 (high‐mobility group box 1) emerges as an important molecule of the body immune network. Accumulating data have demonstrated that HMGB1 is crucially implicated in lung diseases and acts as independent biomarker and therapeutic target for related lung diseases. This review provides an overview of updated understanding of HMGB1 structure, release styles, receptors and function. Furthermore, we discuss the potential role of HMGB1 in a variety of lung diseases. Further exploration of molecular mechanisms underlying the function of HMGB1 in lung diseases will provide novel preventive and therapeutic strategies for lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junying Ding
- Beijing Key Lab of Basic Study on Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Infectious Diseases, Beijing Research Institute of TCM, Beijing Hospital of TCM affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xuran Cui
- Beijing Key Lab of Basic Study on Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Infectious Diseases, Beijing Research Institute of TCM, Beijing Hospital of TCM affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qingquan Liu
- Beijing Key Lab of Basic Study on Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Infectious Diseases, Beijing Research Institute of TCM, Beijing Hospital of TCM affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Xuebijing Ameliorates Sepsis-Induced Lung Injury by Downregulating HMGB1 and RAGE Expressions in Mice. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2015; 2015:860259. [PMID: 25821501 PMCID: PMC4363585 DOI: 10.1155/2015/860259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Xuebijing (XBJ) injection, a traditional Chinese medicine, has been reported as a promising approach in the treatment of sepsis in China. However, its actual molecular mechanisms in sepsis-induced lung injury are yet unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the beneficial effects of XBJ on inflammation and the underlying mechanisms in a model of caecal ligation and puncture-(CLP-) induced lung injury. The mice were divided into CLP group, CLP+XBJ group (XBJ, 4 mL/kg per 12 hours), and sham group. The molecular and histological examinations were performed on the lung, serum, and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid samples of mice at the points of 6, 24, and 48 hours after CLP. The results show that XBJ reduces morphological destruction and neutrophil infiltration in the alveolar space and lung wet/dry weight ratio, which improves mortality of CLP-induced lung injury. Meanwhile, XBJ treatment downregulates high mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) and the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) expression, as well as neutrophil counts, production of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the BAL fluids. In conclusion, these results indicate that XBJ may reduce the mortality through inhibiting proinflammatory cytokines secretion mediated by HMGB1/RAGE axis.
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Gopal P, Gosker HR, Theije CCD, Eurlings IM, Sell DR, Monnier VM, Reynaert NL. Effect of chronic hypoxia on RAGE and its soluble forms in lungs and plasma of mice. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1852:992-1000. [PMID: 25703138 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Revised: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is a multi-ligand receptor. Alternative splicing and enzymatic shedding produce soluble forms that protect against damage by ligands including Advanced Glycation End products (AGEs). A link between RAGE and oxygen levels is evident from studies showing RAGE-mediated injury following hyperoxia. The effect of hypoxia on pulmonary RAGE expression and circulating sRAGE levels is however unknown. Therefore mice were exposed to chronic hypoxia for 21 d and expression of RAGE, sheddases in lungs and circulating sRAGE were determined. In addition, accumulation of AGEs in lungs and expression of the AGE detoxifying enzyme GLO1 and receptors were evaluated. In lung tissue gene expression of total RAGE, variants 1 and 3 were elevated in mice exposed to hypoxia, whereas mRAGE and sRAGE protein levels were decreased. In the hypoxic group plasma sRAGE levels were enhanced. Although the levels of pro-ADAM10 were elevated in lungs of hypoxia exposed mice, the relative amount of the active form was decreased and gelatinase activity unaffected. In the lungs, the RAGE ligand HMGB1 was decreased and of the AGEs, only LW-1 was increased by chronic hypoxia. Gene expression of AGE receptors 2 and 3 was significantly upregulated. Chronic hypoxia is associated with downregulation of pulmonary RAGE protein levels, but a relative increase in sRAGE. These alterations might be part of the adaptive and protective response mechanism to chronic hypoxia and are not associated with AGE formation except for the fluorophore LW-1 which emerges as a novel marker of tissue hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Gopal
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - H R Gosker
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - C C de Theije
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - I M Eurlings
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - D R Sell
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - V M Monnier
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - N L Reynaert
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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