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Wei Y, Zeng Q, Gou H, Bao S. Update on feline calicivirus: viral evolution, pathogenesis, epidemiology, prevention and control. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1388420. [PMID: 38756726 PMCID: PMC11096512 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1388420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a prevalent and impactful viral pathogen affecting domestic cats. As an RNA virus, FCV exhibits high mutability and genetic plasticity, enabling its persistence within cat populations. Viral genetic diversity is associated with a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from asymptomatic infections and mild oral and upper respiratory tract diseases to the potential development of virulent systemic, and even fatal conditions. This diversity poses distinctive challenges in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases caused by FCV. Over the past four decades, research has significantly deepened understanding of this pathogen, with an emphasis on molecular biology, evolutionary dynamics, vaccine development, and disease management strategies. This review discusses various facets of FCV, including its genomic structure, evolution, innate immunity, pathogenesis, epidemiology, and approaches to disease management. FCV remains a complex and evolving concern in feline health, requiring continuous research to enhance understanding of its genetic diversity, to improve vaccine efficacy, and to explore novel treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Huitian Gou
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Shijun Bao
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
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Kim S, Cheng Y, Fang Z, Liu X, Zhongqi Q, Weidong Y, Yilmaz A, Yilmaz H, Umar S. Molecular epidemiology and phylogenetic analysis of feline calicivirus in Kunshan, China. Virol J 2024; 21:50. [PMID: 38414028 PMCID: PMC10900597 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-024-02319-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a highly contagious virus in cats, which typically causes respiratory tract and oral infections. Despite vaccination against FCV being a regular practice in China, new FCV cases still occur. Antigenic diversity of FCV hinders the effective control by vaccination. This is first report which aims to investigate the molecular epidemiology and molecular characteristics of FCV in Kunshan, China. The nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from cats showing variable clinical signs from different animal clinics in Kunshan from 2022 to 2023. Preliminary detection and sequencing of the FCV capsid gene were performed to study genetic diversity and evolutionary characteristics. FCV-RNA was identified in 52 (26%) of the samples using RT-PCR. A significant association was found between FCV-positive detection rate, age, gender, vaccination status and living environment, while a non-significant association was found with breed of cats. Nucleotide analysis revealed two genotypes, GI and GII. GII predominated in Kunshan, with diverse strains and amino acid variations potentially affecting vaccination efficacy and FCV detection. Notably, analysis pinpointed certain strains' association with FCV-virulent systemic disease pathotypes. This investigation sheds light on FCV dynamics, which may aid in developing better prevention strategies and future vaccine designs against circulating FCV genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Semin Kim
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yixi Cheng
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhenkun Fang
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xinyue Liu
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, Suzhou, China
- Division of Natural & Applied Sciences (DNAS), Duke Kunshan University, Suzhou, China
| | - Qiu Zhongqi
- Simba Pet Hospital, Tinglin Park Branch), Maanshan Road, 215335, Kunshan, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yu Weidong
- Play Pi Kangkang Pet Hospital, Kunshan City Development Zone, 215300, Kunshan, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Aysun Yilmaz
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, 35500, Büyükcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Huseyin Yilmaz
- Department of Virology, Veterinary Faculty, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, 35500, Büyükcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sajid Umar
- Global Health Research Center (GHRC), Duke Kunshan University, Suzhou, China.
- Division of Natural & Applied Sciences (DNAS), Duke Kunshan University, Suzhou, China.
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Cao L, Li Q, Shi K, Wei L, Ouyang H, Ye Z, Du W, Ye J, Hui X, Li J, Cao S, Zhou D. Isolation and phylogenetic analysis of feline calicivirus strains from various region of China. ANIMAL DISEASES 2022. [DOI: 10.1186/s44149-022-00047-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractFeline calicivirus (FCV) is an important feline pathogen mainly causing upper respiratory tract disease, conjunctivitis, and stomatitis, and it is classified into genotype I and genotype II. To investigate the prevalence and molecular characteristics of FCV, this study collected 337 cat swab samples from animal hospitals in different regions of China from 2019 to 2021. The positive detection rate of FCV was 29.9% (101/337) by RT-PCR. Statistical analysis showed that FCV prevalence was significantly associated with living environment (p = 0.0004), age (p = 0.031) and clinical symptoms (p = 0.00), but not with sex (p = 0.092) and breed (p = 0.171). The 26 strains of FCV were isolated using F81 cells. Phylogenetic analysis showed that 10 isolates belonged to genotype I, and 16 isolates belonged to genotype II. These 26 isolates were highly genetically diverse, of which HB7 isolate had three same virulence-related amino acid loci with VSD strains. Potential loci distinguishing different genotypes were identified from 26 isolates, suggesting the genetic relationship between different genotypes. In addition, selection pressure analysis based on capsid protein of 26 isolates revealed that the protein is under diversifying selection. This study reveals the genetic diversity of FCV and provides a reference for the screening of vaccine candidate strains and the development of vaccines with better cross-protection effects.
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Liang J, Zang M, Zhou Z. Genetic and phylogenetic analysis of capsid gene of feline calicivirus in Nanjing, China. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2022; 103:105323. [PMID: 35777531 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2022.105323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common and important pathogen in cats, typically resulting in upper respiratory tract disease or ulcerative oral lesions. Although there are large number of researches on FCV and vaccines against FCV have been widely used for years, the explanation for vaccination failure and further studies on the prevalence of FCV are still necessary in China. In this study, 86 nasopharyngeal swabs from pet cats with upper respiratory symptoms from several Nanjing animal hospitals were collected in 2020. Among them, 36 (41.86%) were positive for FCV. In addition, 13 FCV capsid genes were sequenced. The comparative analysis of linear B-cell epitopes of VP1 gene indicated that there were many amino acid variations existed among FCV vaccine strains and these strains currently circulating in Nanjing, which may relate to the failure of vaccination and maybe aid for future vaccine design. Besides, phylogenetic analysis of capsid gene revealed two genotypes. Except for the F86 strain, most of the strains were clustered with FCV I genotype, which indicated that FCV I genotype was the most prevalent genotype currently circulating in Nanjing. In conclusion, this study provided useful information as to the evolution and genetic variants of FCV in Nanjing, which is urgent for the future instructions of effective disease prevention and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Liang
- College of veterinary medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Minghui Zang
- College of veterinary medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhenlei Zhou
- College of veterinary medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, Jiangsu Province, China.
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Mizenko RR, Brostoff T, Jackson K, Pesavento PA, Carney RP. Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) Are Copurified with Feline Calicivirus, yet EV-Enriched Fractions Remain Infectious. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0121122. [PMID: 35876590 PMCID: PMC9430557 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01211-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a major cause of upper respiratory disease in cats and is often used as a model for human norovirus, making it of great veterinary and human medical importance. However, questions remain regarding the route of entry of FCV in vivo. Increasing work has shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) can be active in viral infectivity, yet there is no work examining the role of EVs in FCV infection. Here, we begin to address this knowledge gap by characterizing EVs produced by a feline mammary epithelial cell line (FMEC). We have confirmed that EVs are produced by infected and mock-infected FMECs and that both virions and EVs are coisolated with standard methods of virus purification. We also show that they can be enriched differentially by continuous iodixanol density gradient. EVs were enriched at a density of 1.10 g/mL confirmed by tetraspanin expression, size profile, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Maximum enrichment of FCV at a density of 1.18 g/mL was confirmed by titration, quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (q-RT PCR), and TEM. However, infectious virus was recovered from nearly all samples. When used to infect in vitro epithelium, both EV-rich and virus-rich fractions had the same levels of infectiousness as determined by percentage of wells infected or titer achieved postinfection. These findings highlight the importance of coisolates during viral purification, showing that EVs may represent a parallel route of entry that has previously been overlooked. Additional experiments are necessary to explore the role of EVs in FCV infection. IMPORTANCE Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common cause of upper respiratory infection in cats. Both healthy and infected cells produce small particles called extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are nanoparticles that act as messengers between cells and can be hijacked during viral infection. Historically, the role of EVs in viral infection has been overlooked, and subsequently no group has studied the role of EVs in FCV infection. We hypothesized that EVs may play a role in FCV infection. Here, we show that EVs are copurified with FCV when collecting virus. To study their individual effects, we successfully enrich for viral particles and EVs separately by taking advantage of their different densities. Our initial studies show that EV-enriched versus virus-enriched fractions are equally able to infect cells in culture. These findings highlight the need to both consider the purity of virus after purification and to further study EVs' role in natural FCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel R. Mizenko
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Terza Brostoff
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Kenneth Jackson
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Patricia A. Pesavento
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Randy P. Carney
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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Hofmann-Lehmann R, Hosie MJ, Hartmann K, Egberink H, Truyen U, Tasker S, Belák S, Boucraut-Baralon C, Frymus T, Lloret A, Marsilio F, Pennisi MG, Addie DD, Lutz H, Thiry E, Radford AD, Möstl K. Calicivirus Infection in Cats. Viruses 2022; 14:937. [PMID: 35632680 PMCID: PMC9145992 DOI: 10.3390/v14050937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common pathogen in domestic cats that is highly contagious, resistant to many disinfectants and demonstrates a high genetic variability. FCV infection can lead to serious or even fatal diseases. In this review, the European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases (ABCD), a scientifically independent board of experts in feline medicine from 11 European countries, presents the current knowledge of FCV infection and fills gaps with expert opinions. FCV infections are particularly problematic in multicat environments. FCV-infected cats often show painful erosions in the mouth and mild upper respiratory disease and, particularly in kittens, even fatal pneumonia. However, infection can be associated with chronic gingivostomatitis. Rarely, highly virulent FCV variants can induce severe systemic disease with epizootic spread and high mortality. FCV can best be detected by reverse-transcriptase PCR. However, a negative result does not rule out FCV infection and healthy cats can test positive. All cats should be vaccinated against FCV (core vaccine); however, vaccination protects cats from disease but not from infection. Considering the high variability of FCV, changing to different vaccine strain(s) may be of benefit if disease occurs in fully vaccinated cats. Infection-induced immunity is not life-long and does not protect against all strains; therefore, vaccination of cats that have recovered from caliciviral disease is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Margaret J. Hosie
- MRC—University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Katrin Hartmann
- Clinic of Small Animal Medicine, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, 80539 Munich, Germany;
| | - Herman Egberink
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Uwe Truyen
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany;
| | - Séverine Tasker
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK;
- Linnaeus Veterinary Limited, Shirley, Solihull B90 4BN, UK
| | - Sándor Belák
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health (BVF), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7036, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden;
| | | | - Tadeusz Frymus
- Department of Small Animal Diseases with Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Albert Lloret
- Fundació Hospital Clínic Veterinari, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Fulvio Marsilio
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Maria Grazia Pennisi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Università di Messina, 98168 Messina, Italy;
| | - Diane D. Addie
- Veterinary Diagnostic Services, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Hans Lutz
- Clinical Laboratory, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Etienne Thiry
- Veterinary Virology and Animal Viral Diseases, Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animals & Health Research Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Liège University, B-4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Alan D. Radford
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Chester High Road, Neston CH64 7TE, UK;
| | - Karin Möstl
- Institute of Virology, Department for Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
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Mestrinho LA, Rosa R, Ramalho P, Branco V, Iglésias L, Pissarra H, Duarte A, Niza M. A pilot study to evaluate the serum Alpha-1 acid glycoprotein response in cats suffering from feline chronic gingivostomatitis. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:390. [PMID: 33059691 PMCID: PMC7558631 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02590-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Feline chronic gingivostomatitis (FCGS) is a multifactorial immune-mediated disease that can lead to chronic pain, anorexia, and weight loss and has substantial health and welfare effects. Currently, the recommended treatment includes dental extractions to decrease the inflammatory stimulation associated with dental plaque. However, complete remission is observed in less than half of the cases, and the majority need comprehensive medical management. This study aimed to evaluate the serum levels of the acute phase protein alpha-1 acid glycoprotein (AGP) in cats with FCGS and to examine whether dental extractions contribute to a significant decrease in the systemic inflammatory response at two postoperative time points. RESULTS AGP serum concentrations in the cats with FCGS were significantly higher at all time points than that in the control groups and were significantly correlated with the global caudal stomatitis score at day 0 but not at day 30 or 60. A significant improvement of some clinical scores, such as perceived comfort and global caudal stomatitis, was observed 60 days after the dental extraction. However, the levels of AGP did not significantly change over time. CONCLUSIONS Cats with FCGS were more likely to have a systemic inflammatory response compared with age- and dental disease-matched controls. Dental extractions, in most cases, did not contribute to a significant decrease of AGP both at 30 and 60 days. Therefore, this study reinforces the need to pursue comprehensive medical management after dental extractions to attenuate the systemic inflammatory response as a result of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Mestrinho
- CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Rita Rosa
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Ramalho
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Vasco Branco
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Leonor Iglésias
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Hugo Pissarra
- CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Duarte
- CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maria Niza
- CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida da Universidade Técnica, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
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Meli ML, Berger A, Willi B, Spiri AM, Riond B, Hofmann-Lehmann R. Molecular detection of feline calicivirus in clinical samples: A study comparing its detection by RT-qPCR directly from swabs and after virus isolation. J Virol Methods 2017; 251:54-60. [PMID: 28986291 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2017.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Feline caliciviruses (FCVs) are non-enveloped RNA viruses that exhibit high genetic variation. Two reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) FCV assays (S1 and S2) were evaluated using samples from 300 field cats. The direct detection of FCV in swabs and after propagation in cell culture, as well as the influence of storage conditions, was assessed. FCV-RNA detectability on dry swabs was similar after storage at either 4°C or -20°C, but viral burdens were maintained for a longer time period when viral transport medium was used. A total of 97 (32%) samples was considered FCV PCR-positive. Of these, 81% and 77% tested positive directly from swabs using S1 and S2, respectively; 84% and 81% tested positive after enrichment in cell culture, respectively. Combined detection by RT-PCR directly from swabs and after VI was most sensitive (up to 96%). Neither of the methods alone were able to detect all FCV-positive samples. In conclusion, clinical samples should be collected in viral transport medium, stored at ≤4°C and processed as soon as possible. The combination of cell culture with RT-qPCR or detection directly from swabs using a combination of different RT-qPCR assays is recommended to reach a high sensitivity of FCV detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina L Meli
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Alice Berger
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Barbara Willi
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Andrea M Spiri
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Barbara Riond
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Targeted Enrichment for Pathogen Detection and Characterization in Three Felid Species. J Clin Microbiol 2017; 55:1658-1670. [PMID: 28330894 PMCID: PMC5442522 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01463-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional diagnostic assays often lack sensitivity and can be difficult to multiplex across many pathogens. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) can overcome some of these problems but has limited application in the detection of low-copy-number pathogens in complex samples. Targeted genome capture (TGC) utilizes oligonucleotide probes to enrich specific nucleic acids in heterogeneous extracts and can therefore increase the proportion of NGS reads for low-abundance targets. While earlier studies have demonstrated the utility of this technology for detection of novel pathogens in human clinical samples, the capacity and practicality of TGC-NGS in a veterinary diagnostic setting have not yet been evaluated. Here we report the use of TGC-NGS assays for the detection and characterization of diverse feline pathogen taxa. We detected 31 pathogens comprising nine pathogen taxa in 28 felid samples analyzed. This included 20 pathogens detected via traditional PCR and 11 additional pathogens that had not been previously detected in the same samples. Most of the pathogens detected were sequenced at sufficient breadth and depth to confidently classify them at the species or subspecies level. Target nucleic acids were enriched from a low of 58-fold to 56 million-fold relative to host nucleic acids. Despite the promising performance of these assays, a number of pathogens detected by conventional PCR or serology were not isolated by TGC-NGS, suggesting that further validation is required before this technology can be used in lieu of quality-controlled standard assays. We conclude that TGC-NGS offers great potential as a broad multiplex pathogen characterization assay in veterinary diagnostic and research settings.
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Berger A, Willi B, Meli ML, Boretti FS, Hartnack S, Dreyfus A, Lutz H, Hofmann-Lehmann R. Feline calicivirus and other respiratory pathogens in cats with Feline calicivirus-related symptoms and in clinically healthy cats in Switzerland. BMC Vet Res 2015; 11:282. [PMID: 26566897 PMCID: PMC4644299 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-015-0595-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cats with feline calicivirus (FCV)-related symptoms are commonly presented to veterinary practitioners. Various clinical manifestations have been attributed to FCV, i.e. upper respiratory tract disease (URTD), oral ulcerations, gingivostomatitis, limping syndrome and virulent systemic disease. Additionally, healthy cats can shed FCV. The aims of this study were 1) to investigate the frequency of FCV in cats with FCV-related symptoms and in healthy cats in Switzerland, 2) to assess risk and protective factors for infection, such as signalment, housing conditions, vaccination, and co-infection with URTD-associated pathogens, and 3) to address the association between clinical symptoms and FCV infection. Results Oropharyngeal, nasal and conjunctival swabs were collected in 24 veterinary practices from 200 FCV-suspect and 100 healthy cats originating from 19 cantons of Switzerland. The samples were tested for FCV using virus isolation and reverse-transcription real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) and for feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1), Mycoplasma felis, Chlamydophila felis, Bordetella bronchiseptica using real-time qPCR. Within the two populations (FCV-suspect/healthy), the observed PCR prevalences were: FCV 45 %/8 %, FHV-1 20 %/9 %, C. felis 8 %/1 %, B. bronchiseptica 4 %/2 %, M. felis 47 %/31 % and any co-infections thereof 40 %/14 %. Based on multivariable regression models amongst FCV-suspect cats (odds ratio [95 % confidence interval]), co-infection with M. felis (1.75 [0.97; 3.14]), group housing (2.11 [1.02; 4.34]) and intact reproductive status (1.80 [0.99; 3.28]) were found to be risk factors for FCV infection. In healthy cats, intact reproductive status (22.2 [1.85; 266.7]) and group housing (46.4 [5.70; 377.7]) were found to be associated with FCV infection. Based on an univariable approach, FCV-suspect cats were found to be significantly less often FCV-positive when vaccinated (0.48 [0.24; 0.94]). Oral ulcerations, salivation, gingivitis and stomatitis, but not classical signs of URTD were significantly associated with FCV infection (all p < 0.001). Conclusions FCV was detected in less than half of the cats that were judged FCV-suspect by veterinary practitioners. For a clinical diagnosis, FCV-related symptoms should be revisited. FCV infection was present in some healthy cats, underlining the importance of asymptomatic carriers in FCV epidemiology. To reduce FCV-related problems in multi-cat environments, reduction of group size in addition to the generally recommended vaccination are advocated. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-015-0595-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Berger
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Barbara Willi
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Marina L Meli
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Felicitas S Boretti
- Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Sonja Hartnack
- Section of Epidemiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Anou Dreyfus
- Section of Epidemiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Hans Lutz
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Regina Hofmann-Lehmann
- Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Center for Clinical Studies, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. .,Present address: Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstr. 260, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Lund HS, Rimstad E, Eggertsdóttir AV. Prevalence of viral infections in Norwegian cats with and without feline lower urinary tract disease. J Feline Med Surg 2012; 14:895-9. [PMID: 22983453 PMCID: PMC11108017 DOI: 10.1177/1098612x12459644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
The prevalence of various viral infections was examined in primary accession cases of feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD) and healthy control cats in Norway. Urine samples from 102 cats with clinical signs of FLUTD and 73 healthy control cats were tested for the presence of feline calicivirus (FCV), feline coronavirus (FCoV) and feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) by polymerase chain reaction. All urinary samples were negative for FCV and FCoV. One (1%) of the FLUTD cats was found to be positive for FHV-1. The results did not indicate an association between the viral infections examined and signs of FLUTD in the study sample.
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12
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Gil S, Leal RO, Duarte A, McGahie D, Sepúlveda N, Siborro I, Cravo J, Cartaxeiro C, Tavares LM. Relevance of feline interferon omega for clinical improvement and reduction of concurrent viral excretion in retrovirus infected cats from a rescue shelter. Res Vet Sci 2012; 94:753-63. [PMID: 23122808 PMCID: PMC7111785 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2012.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2012] [Revised: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/29/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Feline Immnunodeficiency (FIV) and Feline Leukemia (FeLV) viruses are common infectious agents in stray cats and shelter environments. Recombinant feline interferon-ω (rFeIFNω) has shown an antiviral action not only against FIV and FeLV but also against herpesvirus (FHV-1) and calicivirus (FCV). Sixteen naturally infected FIV/FeLV cats were followed during rFeIFNω therapy in order to monitor clinical signs and to correlate with excretion of concomitant viruses (FCV, FHV-1, feline coronavirus (FCoV) and parvovirus (FPV)). Cats were submitted to clinical evaluations and concomitant virus excretion assessement. Comparing D0–D65, 10/16 cats improved clinical scores. Of the 10 cats positive for FHV-1 on D0, 4 were negative and 6 reduced viral loads. Of the 11 FCoV positive cats, 9 reduced viral loads. The 13 FCV positive cats and the FPV positive cat were negative on D65. In conclusion, rFeIFNω improves clinical signs and reduces concurrent viral excretion in naturally infected retroviral cats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Solange Gil
- Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal (CIISA), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Technical University of Lisbon (TULisbon), Av. Universidade Técnica, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal.
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13
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Gerriets W, Joy N, Huebner-Guthardt J, Eule JC. Feline calicivirus: a neglected cause of feline ocular surface infections? Vet Ophthalmol 2011; 15:172-9. [PMID: 22050669 DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2011.00957.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the prevalence of feline calicivirus (FCV) infection in relation to ocular surface lesions in cats with upper respiratory tract diseases (URTD). ANIMALS STUDIED Ninety-nine cats with ocular surface infection and symptoms or recent history of URTD were examined at various rescue shelters and hospitals. PROCEDURE A complete general and ophthalmic examination was performed including Schirmer tear test, slit-lamp biomicroscopy, fluorescein and lissamine green staining. Clinical and ocular symptoms were scored and recorded. Conjunctival samples were collected using a cytobrush, and nucleic acid extraction using RT-PCR was carried out to analyze for the presence of various infectious agents. RESULTS RT-PCR detected either FCV, feline herpes virus type 1 (FHV-1), Chlamydophila felis or Mycoplasma spp. in 63/99 samples. 30/63 samples were positive for FCV, 23/63 for C. felis, 21/63 for Mycoplasma spp., and 16/63 for FHV-1. Out of the 30 FCV-positive samples, 11 were positive only for FCV and in 19 samples FCV was seen in combination with other agents. FCV infection was highest in animals examined at the rescue centers and in the age group of 0-2 months. Erosive conjunctivitis was an important ocular finding. Oral ulcers were detected in all FCV-infected cats. CONCLUSION Results indicate that FCV is highly prevalent in cats with URTD either as a sole infectious agent or in combination with other pathogens and therefore is a potential cause for ocular surface lesions during the URTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Gerriets
- Small Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Oertzenweg 19b, D-14163 Germany
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14
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Zhou F, Harmon KM, Yoon KJ, Olson DG, Dickson JS. Inactivation of feline calicivirus as a surrogate for norovirus on lettuce by electron beam irradiation. J Food Prot 2011; 74:1500-3. [PMID: 21902919 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-11-121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Caliciviridae, including norovirus, are considered important sources of human gastroenteritis. As leafy green vegetables are commonly consumed without additional processing, it is important to evaluate interventions to reduce the presence of human pathogens in these products. Feline calicivirus was used as a model for small round structured viruses on lettuce. The lettuce was inoculated by immersion to simulate contamination from irrigation or wash water. The inoculated lettuce was then exposed to electron beam irradiation at various dose levels to determine survival. The D₁₀-value of the calicivirus on lettuce was determined to be 2.95 kGy. Irradiation to reduce bacterial pathogens on cut lettuce could also reduce the risk associated with small round structured viruses on lettuce.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanghong Zhou
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
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15
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Larson J, Kruger JM, Wise AG, Kaneene JB, Miller R, Fitzgerald SD, Kiupel M, Maes RK. Nested case-control study of feline calicivirus viruria, oral carriage, and serum neutralizing antibodies in cats with idiopathic cystitis. J Vet Intern Med 2011; 25:199-205. [PMID: 21314728 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.0685.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The epidemiology of feline calicivirus (FCV) infection in cats with idiopathic cystitis (FIC) has not been investigated by contemporary molecular biologic methods. OBJECTIVES To determine the prevalence of and evaluate risk factors for FCV viruria, oral carriage, and virus neutralizing (VN) antibodies in cats with and without FIC. ANIMALS Cats with nonobstructive FIC (n = 47), obstructive FIC (n = 22), and FCV upper respiratory tract infection (URI; n = 25), and healthy client-owned (n = 18) and colony-housed (n = 24) cats. METHODS Oropharyngeal secretions and urine were evaluated with a FCV p30 gene-based real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay. Serum VN antibody titers were determined by a modified microtiter assay. Associations of risk factors with log-transformed antibody titers were determined by multivariable generalized linear regression. RESULTS FCV viruria was detected in 4 (6%) and 3 (12%) cats with FIC and URI, respectively. In 3 FIC cats, viruria was unassociated with detectable oral virus carriage. Oral FCV carriage was detected in 7 (10%) FIC cats. Median antibody titers were significantly higher in cats with obstructive FIC (1 :256), nonobstructive FIC (1:128), and URI (1:512) compared with healthy client-owned (1:16) and colony-housed (1:4) cats (P < .001). Other than disease, multivariate analysis did not identify any other explanatory variables for increased titers in cats with FIC or URI. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE FCV viruria was detected in cats with FIC and URI, however, its etiologic significance is uncertain. Serologic results suggest increased FCV exposure in FIC cats compared with controls. Further investigations are needed to clarify the potential role of FCV in FIC.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Larson
- Department of Small Animal Clinical SciencesCollege of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital, East Lansing, MI, USA
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16
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McClenahan SD, Bok K, Neill JD, Smith AW, Rhodes CR, Sosnovtsev SV, Green KY, Romero CH. A capsid gene-based real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of marine vesiviruses in the Caliciviridae. J Virol Methods 2009; 161:12-8. [PMID: 19410604 PMCID: PMC2716420 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2009.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2008] [Revised: 04/20/2009] [Accepted: 04/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rtRT-PCR) assay was developed for the identification of marine vesiviruses. The primers were designed to target a 176-nucleotide fragment within a highly conserved region of the San Miguel sea lion viruses (SMSVs) capsid gene. The assay detected viral RNA from nine marine vesivirus serotypes described previously, including two serotypes (SMSV-8 and -12) not identified with presently available molecular assays, a highly related bovine vesivirus strain (Bos-1), a mink vesivirus strain (MCV), and two novel genotypes isolated recently from Steller sea lions (SSL V810 and V1415). The real-time assay did not amplify sequences from the corresponding genomic regions of feline calicivirus (also in the genus Vesivirus) and representative members of the genus Norovirus. The rtRT-PCR assay described below may prove useful as a diagnostic tool for the detection of currently circulating, emerging and previously described marine vesiviruses in clinical samples, especially when large numbers are screened in surveillance studies of these restricted viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shasta D. McClenahan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Bldg 1017, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Karin Bok
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - John D. Neill
- National Animal Disease Center, USDA, Ames, IA 50010, USA
| | - Alvin W. Smith
- Laboratory for Calicivirus Studies, Oregon State University Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Crystal R. Rhodes
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Stanislav V. Sosnovtsev
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kim Y. Green
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Carlos H. Romero
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Bldg 1017, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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17
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Radford AD, Addie D, Belák S, Boucraut-Baralon C, Egberink H, Frymus T, Gruffydd-Jones T, Hartmann K, Hosie MJ, Lloret A, Lutz H, Marsilio F, Pennisi MG, Thiry E, Truyen U, Horzinek MC. Feline Calicivirus Infection: ABCD Guidelines on Prevention and Management. J Feline Med Surg 2009; 11:556-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfms.2009.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Overview Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a highly variable virus. More severe, systemic forms of FCV infection have been observed recently. Infection Sick, acutely infected or carrier cats shed FCV in oronasal and conjunctival secretions. Infection occurs mainly through direct contact. Disease signs The main clinical signs are oral ulcers, upper respiratory signs and a high fever. Feline calicivirus may be isolated from nearly all cats with chronic stomatitis or gingivitis. Cats with ‘virulent systemic FCV disease’ variably show pyrexia, cutaneous oedema, ulcerative lesions on the head and limbs, and jaundice. Mortality is high and the disease is more severe in adult cats. Diagnosis Diagnosis of FCV can be achieved by virus isolation or reverse-transcriptase PCR. Viral RNA can be detected in conjunctival and oral swabs, blood, skin scrapings or lung tissue using PCR. Positive PCR results should be interpreted with caution, as these may be a consequence of low-level shedding by persistently infected carriers. The diagnosis of virulent systemic FCV disease relies on clinical signs and isolation of the same strain from the blood of several diseased cats. Disease management Supportive therapy (including fluid therapy) and good nursing care are essential. Anorexic cats should be fed highly palatable, blended or warmed food. Mucolytic drugs (eg, bromhexine) or nebulisation with saline may offer relief. Broad-spectrum antibiotics may be administered to prevent secondary bacterial infections. Feline calicivirus can persist in the environment for about 1 month and is resistant to many common disinfectants.
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18
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Transmission of feline calicivirus via the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis). Parasitol Res 2009; 105:185-9. [PMID: 19277714 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-009-1381-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2009] [Accepted: 02/19/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In this study, a possible role of the cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) in transmitting feline calicivirus (FCV) was examined. Fleas were fed via artificial membranes with FCV-spiked bovine blood, free of anti-FCV antibodies. Flea feces were collected daily for 10 days and incubated at room temperature. Infectivity of the feces was tested in vitro using Crandell-Reese Feline Kidney (CRFK) cells. FCV remained infectious for 8 days. These flea feces were also used to oronasally inoculate four specific pathogen-free (SPF) kittens. All kittens were successfully infected as demonstrated by virus isolation from pharyngeal swabs and seroconversion. Two of the cats showed, in addition, clinical signs. Besides the infection of cats with flea feces containing FCV, four SPF kittens were exposed to fleas that were fed with FCV-spiked bovine blood. One of the kittens was successfully infected via this route as demonstrated by virus isolation from pharyngeal swabs and virus isolation. The results of this study show that fleas can spread infectious virus through their feces or by stitch and must be considered a source of infection for uninfected cats.
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19
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Abd-Eldaim MM, Wilkes RP, Thomas KV, Kennedy MA. Development and validation of a TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-PCR for rapid detection of feline calicivirus. Arch Virol 2009; 154:555-60. [PMID: 19253013 PMCID: PMC7086925 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-009-0337-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Accepted: 02/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a common cause of upper respiratory tract disease in cats and is associated with interstitial pneumonia, oral ulceration and polyarthritis. Recently, outbreaks have involved a highly virulent FCV that leads to multisystemic signs. Virus isolation and conventional RT-PCR are the most common methods used for FCV diagnosis. However, real-time RT-PCR offers a rapid, sensitive, specific and easy tool for nucleic acid detection. The objective of this study was to design a TaqMan probe-based, real-time RT-PCR assay for detection of FCV. It was determined in our previous study that the first 120 nucleotides of the 5′ region of the genome are highly conserved among FCV isolates. Primers and a probe specific for this region were designed for a real-time RT-PCR assay to detect FCV. Initial validation was done using 15 genetically diverse isolates. Also, 122 samples were tested by the new assay and virus isolation. The real-time RT-PCR assay was as sensitive and specific as virus isolation and was far more rapid. This real-time RT-PCR assay targeting the conserved 5′ region of the genome is a fast, economical and accurate method for detection of FCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed M Abd-Eldaim
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 37996, USA.
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20
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Deepak SA, Kottapalli KR, Rakwal R, Oros G, Rangappa KS, Iwahashi H, Masuo Y, Agrawal GK. Real-Time PCR: Revolutionizing Detection and Expression Analysis of Genes. Curr Genomics 2007; 8:234-51. [PMID: 18645596 PMCID: PMC2430684 DOI: 10.2174/138920207781386960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2007] [Revised: 02/27/2007] [Accepted: 03/02/2007] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Invention of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology by Kary Mullis in 1984 gave birth to real-time PCR. Real-time PCR - detection and expression analysis of gene(s) in real-time - has revolutionized the 21(st) century biological science due to its tremendous application in quantitative genotyping, genetic variation of inter and intra organisms, early diagnosis of disease, forensic, to name a few. We comprehensively review various aspects of real-time PCR, including technological refinement and application in all scientific fields ranging from medical to environmental issues, and to plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- SA Deepak
- Department of Studies in Applied Botany and Biotechnology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore 570006,
India
| | - KR Kottapalli
- Plant Genome Research Unit, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 2-1-2 Kannondai, Tsukuba 305-
8602, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - R Rakwal
- Human Stress Signal Research Center (HSS), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science
and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba West, 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8569, Ibaraki, Japan
- Research Laboratory for
Agricultural Biotechnology and Biochemistry (RLABB), GPO Box 8207, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - G Oros
- Plant Protection Institute,
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - KS Rangappa
- Department of Studies in Chemistry, University of Mysore,
Manasagangotri, Mysore 570006, India
| | - H Iwahashi
- Human Stress Signal Research Center (HSS), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science
and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba West, 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8569, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Y Masuo
- Human Stress Signal Research Center (HSS), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science
and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba West, 16-1 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8569, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - GK Agrawal
- Research Laboratory for
Agricultural Biotechnology and Biochemistry (RLABB), GPO Box 8207, Kathmandu, Nepal
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