Cynomorium songaricum prevents bone resorption in ovariectomized rats through RANKL/RANK/TRAF6 mediated suppression of PI3K/AKT and NF-κB pathways

Epimedin A inhibits the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signalling axis and osteoclast differentiation by negatively regulating TRAF6 expression

BACKGROUND

Epimedin A (EA) has been shown to suppress extensive osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption, but the effects of EA remain incompletely understood. The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of EA on osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption to explore the corresponding signalling pathways.

METHODS

Rats were randomly assigned to the sham operation or ovariectomy group, and alendronate was used for the positive control group. The therapeutic effect of EA on osteoporosis was systematically analysed by measuring bone mineral density and bone biomechanical properties. In vitro, RAW264.7 cells were treated with receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL) and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) to induce osteoclast differentiation. Cell viability assays, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining, and immunofluorescence were used to elucidate the effects of EA on osteoclastogenesis. In addition, the expression of bone differentiation-related proteins or genes was evaluated using Western blot analysis or quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively.

RESULTS

After 3 months of oral EA intervention, ovariectomized rats exhibited increased bone density, relative bone volume, trabecular thickness, and trabecular number, as well as reduced trabecular separation. EA dose-dependently normalized bone density and trabecular microarchitecture in the ovariectomized rats. Additionally, EA inhibited the expression of TRAP and NFATc1 in the ovariectomized rats. Moreover, the in vitro results indicated that EA inhibits osteoclast differentiation by suppressing the TRAF6/PI3K/AKT/NF-κB pathway. Further studies revealed that the effect on osteoclast differentiation, which was originally inhibited by EA, was reversed when the TRAF6 gene was overexpressed.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicated that EA can negatively regulate osteoclastogenesis by inhibiting the TRAF6/PI3K/AKT/NF-κB axis and that ameliorating ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis in rats with EA may be a promising potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of osteoporosis.

Investigating the Effects and Mechanisms of Cyclomorusin on Osteoclasts in a High Glucose Environment

Diabetes mellitus is an endocrine disease characterized by prolonged hyperglycemia. Prolonged high blood sugar levels interfere with the differentiation and maturation process of OBs and OCs, leading to the onset of osteoporosis. However, OCs differentiation and maturation is a complex regulatory process. In this study, we used a co-culture system of RAW264.7 and MC3T3-E1 cells under HG concentration to explore the effect of CYM on OCs in a HG environment. The effects of CYM on the formation and function of OCs were observed using TRAP-positive cell counts and bone resorption pits. Then, mRNA and protein expression levels of OCs-related genes were detected by real-time qPCR and western blotting. The results showed that CYM had an inhibitory effect on OCs differentiation and bone resorption, reduced mRNAs expression of OCs-associated genes, and downregulated RANKL/RANK/TRAF6 pathway that mediates OCs differentiation. CYM could be a promising natural compound against diabetic osteoporosis.

Pathological progression of osteoarthritis: a perspective on subchondral bone

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative bone disease associated with aging. The rising global aging population has led to a surge in OA cases, thereby imposing a significant socioeconomic burden. Researchers have been keenly investigating the mechanisms underlying OA. Previous studies have suggested that the disease starts with synovial inflammation and hyperplasia, advancing toward cartilage degradation. Ultimately, subchondral-bone collapse, sclerosis, and osteophyte formation occur. This progression is deemed as "top to bottom." However, recent research is challenging this perspective by indicating that initial changes occur in subchondral bone, precipitating cartilage breakdown. In this review, we elucidate the epidemiology of OA and present an in-depth overview of the subchondral bone's physiological state, functions, and the varied pathological shifts during OA progression. We also introduce the role of multifunctional signal pathways (including osteoprotegerin (OPG)/receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL)/receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B (RANK), and chemokine (CXC motif) ligand 12 (CXCL12)/CXC motif chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4)) in the pathology of subchondral bone and their role in the "bottom-up" progression of OA. Using vivid pattern maps and clinical images, this review highlights the crucial role of subchondral bone in driving OA progression, illuminating its interplay with the condition.

Research Progress in Traditional Applications, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Safety Evaluation of Cynomorium songaricum

Cynomorium songaricum Rupr. (CSR) belongs to the family Cynomoriaceae. It is a perennial succulent parasitic herb with a reddish-brown coloration, predominantly submerged in sand and lacking chlorophyll. Traditionally, it has been used in ethnic medicine to treat various diseases, such as gastric ulcers, indigestion, bowel movements, and improving sexual function. To comprehensively collect CSR data, extensive literature searches were conducted using medical, ecological, and scientific databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). This article summarizes and categorizes research on the uses, phytochemical characteristics, pharmacological activities, and toxicity of ethnic medicine, with the aim of establishing a solid foundation and proposing new avenues for exploring and developing potential applications of CSR. So far, a total of 98 compounds have been isolated and identified from CSR, including flavonoids, terpenes, steroids, and other compounds. It is worth noting that flavonoids and polysaccharides have significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In addition, these compounds also show good application prospects in anti-tumor, antioxidant, anti-aging, anti-fatigue, anti-diabetes, and other aspects. Although extensive progress has been made in the basic research of CSR, further research is still needed to enhance the understanding of its mechanism of action and explore more unknown compounds. Our review indicates that CSR has broad prospects and deserves further research.

Marantodes pumilum (Kacip Fatimah) Aqueous Extract Enhances Osteoblast and Suppresses Osteoclast Activities in Cancellous Bone of a Rat Model of Postmenopause

Evidence pointed towards the benefits of Marantodes pumilum in treating osteoporosis after menopause; however, the detailed mechanisms still have not been explored. Therefore, this study aims to identify the molecular mechanisms underlying M. pumilum's bone-protective effect via the involvement of RANK/RANKL/OPG and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways. Ovariectomized adult female rats were given M. pumilum leaf aqueous extract (MPLA) (50 and 100 mg/kg/day) and estrogen (positive control) orally for twenty-eight consecutive days. Following the treatment, rats were sacrificed, and femur bones were harvested. Blood was withdrawn for analysis of serum Ca2+, PO43-, and bone alkaline phosphatase (BALP) levels. The bone microarchitectural changes were observed by H&E and PAS staining and distribution and expression of RANK/RANKL/OPG and Wnt3a/β-catenin and its downstream proteins were determined by immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, Western blot, and real-time PCR. MPLA treatment increased serum Ca2+ and PO43- levels and reduced serum BALP levels (p < 0.05). Besides, deterioration in cancellous bone microarchitecture and the loss of bone glycogen and collagen content were mitigated by MPLA treatment. Levels of RANKL, Traf6, and NF-kB but not RANK in bone were decreased; however, levels of OPG, Wnt3a, LRP-5, Frizzled, Dvl, β-catenin, RUNX, and Bmp-2 in bone were increased following treatment with MPLA. In conclusion, MPLA helps to protect against bone deterioration in estrogen deficiency state and thus, this herb could potentially be used to ameliorate osteoporosis in women after menopause.

Vetiver aerial parts and roots ameliorate rheumatoid arthritis in complete Freund's adjuvant rat model, a phytochemical profiling and mechanistic study

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) is indigenous to India where it is traditionally used to relief rheumatisms, lumbagos and sprains. Vetiver anti-inflammatory activity has not been previously investigated, and its specific interactions with body inflammation cascade remain largely unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present work was performed to validate the ethnobotanical use of the plant and compare the anti-inflammatory activities of the ethanolic extracts of the most traditionally used part (aerial part) to that of the root. Furthermore, we attempt to reveal the molecular mechanism of this anti-inflammatory activity in correlation to the chemical composition of C. zizanioides aerial (CA) and root parts (CR).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC/HRMS) was used for comprehensive analysis of both CA and CR. The anti-inflammatory effect of both extracts was evaluated in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced RA model in Wistar rats.

RESULTS

Phenolic metabolites were predominant in CA and 42 were identified for the first time, while only 13 were identified in CR. Meanwhile, triterpenes and sesquiterpenes were confined to the root extract. In CFA arthritis model, CA showed better anti-inflammatory activity than CR marked by an increase in serum level of IL-10 with simultaneous decrease in pro-inflammatory markers; IL-6, ACPA and TNF-α and was evident in histopathological examination. This anti-inflammatory effect was accompanied by down-regulation of JAK2/STAT3/SOCs3, ERK1/ERK2, TRAF6/c-FOS/NFATC1, TRAF6/NF-κB/NFATC1 and RANKL pathways which were all upregulated after CFA injection. These pathways were modulated to larger extent by CA, except for ERK1/ERK2 which was downregulated more effectively by CR. This differential effect between CA and CR can be explained by the variability in their phytoconstituents profile.

CONCLUSION

In agreement with the ethnobotanical preference, CA extract was more effective than CR extract in reducing the symptoms of RA probably due to its enrichment with flavonoids, lignans, and flavolignans. Both CA and CR reduced the production of inflammatory cytokines through modulating various biological signaling pathways. These findings support the traditional use of vetiver leaves as a remedy for RA and suggest that the use of the whole plant may offer advantage by synergistically affecting more inflammatory pathways.

CCDC43 as a potential therapeutic target of Tian Yang Wan for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma by activating the hippo pathway

Introduction

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) prevalence is rising annually, but the existing treatment strategies are limited; therefore, it is crucial to explore new therapeutic approaches.

Methods

Here, we investigate the potential anti-cancer mechanism of an herbal medicine called Tian Yang Wan (TYW) in the treatment of HCC. The relationship of CCDC43 with immunity and cell death was analyzed by bioinformatics. Confirming the tumor suppressor effect of TYW on HCC cells by proliferation, invasion, migration and apoptosis assays.

Results

First, we analyzed by proteomics that CCDC43 expression was downregulated after TYW administration and promoted the hippo pathway. Then, a large sample's transcriptome study demonstrated that elevated CCDC43 expression was strongly correlated with clinical traits and a bad prognosis in HCC patients. Next, we observed through multiple advanced algorithms that CCDC43 is involved in a variety of oncology and immunology related pathways. Notably, we found higher tumor immune microenvironment with high CCDC43 expression. Furthermore, we demonstrated that CCDC43 is associated with immune checkpoints and found that it is a sensitive indicator of a large number of chemotherapeutic agents. Subsequently, we conducted experimental investigations to demonstrate the capacity of TYW to impede proliferation and migration, while inducing apoptosis in human HCC cell lines. Finally, we performed analysis of two cell death patterns which showed CCDC43 to be strongly correlated with multiple ferroptosis factors and cuproptosis factors.

Discusion

In conclusion, our study comprehensively examined the prognostic, immunological, and therapeutic implications of CCDC43 in HCC, thereby elucidating the therapeutic mechanism of action in TYW.

High-dose Tiger-Gian formula protects the knee joint from surgically induced osteoarthritis in rats

AIM

Although the Tiger-Gian formula (TGF) has proven clinically effective at improving the symptoms of knee osteoarthritis (KOA), the pharmacological effects and underlying mechanisms of TGF have not been examined in any animal model. This study assessed the effects of TGF in male Sprague-Dawley rats with anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) -induced KOA.

METHODS

Thirty rats underwent ACLT surgery and were assigned to either the control group, ACLT alone, ACLT + low-dose TGF (1000 mg/kg), ACLT + high-dose TGF (3000 mg/kg), or ACLT + celecoxib (30 mg/kg). All rats were subjected to micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), weight-bearing behavioral testing, and histological inspections of the knee joint for evidence of structural changes in articular bone, cartilage and synovium.

RESULTS

After 6 weeks, force discrepancies in weight-bearing distribution between the normal hind and postoperative limbs revealed superiority with high-dose TGF (18.00 ± 5.93 g) and celecoxib (18.68 ± 5.29 g) versus both ACLT alone (41.29 ± 7.06 g) and low-dose TGF (37.00 ± 7.40 g). Micro-CT images revealed that high-dose TGF and celecoxib similarly improved subchondral bone architecture, protected articular cartilage after ACLT, and downregulated proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α in the cartilage and synovial sections.

CONCLUSION

High-dose TGF induced the smallest amount of KOA-associated bone loss. Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and immunomodulatory effects of TGF were accompanied by reductions in proinflammatory cytokines and improvements in pain and function. TGF-induced anti-osteoporotic activity and inhibition of cartilage degradation were reflected by micro-CT and histological analysis. The findings help to explain how TGF alleviates symptoms of KOA.

Glycoside constituents with various antioxidant effects from fresh Cynomorium songaricum

Cynomorium songaricum Rupr. (CSR), an edible and medicinal material, is widely cultivated in desert regions of Eastern and Western Asia, Europe, and North Africa. Ten glycoside constituents 1-10 including one new songaricumone A (1) were isolated from the fresh C. songaricum. Their structures were elucidated by comprehensive NMR data analysis. Further, various antioxidant effects of isolated compounds (1-3 and 5-10) were comprehensively and comparatively investigated. In conclusion, it is obvious that different glycosides vary significantly toward different sources of free radicals, which are attributed to different aglycones and substituted positions of sugar unit in structures.

A sustained-release Trametinib bio-multifunction hydrogel inhibits orthodontically induced inflammatory root resorption

Orthodontic tooth movement (OTM) is a bone reconstruction process. In most cases, OTM could induce root resorption as a common side effect, called orthodontically induced inflammatory root resorption (OIIRR). OIIRR affects tooth health and interferes with the stability of orthodontic treatment. Osteoclasts, which perform bone resorption in OTM, attack cementum, causing OIIRR. Many signaling pathways are involved in the maturation and differentiation of osteoclasts, among which the ERK1/2 is one of the important pathways. In this experiment, we added Trametinib (Tra), a specific inhibitor of ERK1/2, to catechol-modified chitosan (CHI-C) and oxidized dextran (ODex) to form a CCOD-Trametinib composite hydrogel (CCOD-Tra) to prevent OIIRR. CCOD-Tra exhibited good biocompatibility, injectability, strong adhesion, good hemostatic function and sustained release of Tra. We performed local injection of CCOD-Tra into the periodontal tissues of rats. CCOD-Tra firmly adhered to the periodontal tissues and then released Tra to establish a good biological environment and maintain a drug concentration at a high level around the roots for a long time. H&E, TRAP, immunochemistry staining and micro-CT indicated that CCOD-Tra had a good effect in terms of preventing OIIRR. Cell experiments showed that CCOD-Tra reduced the expression of TRAP, MMP-9 and C-FOS in osteoclast cells through the ERK1/2 signaling pathway to inhibit the differentiation and maturation of osteoclasts. Based on the above results, we concluded that CCOD-Tra had the ability to prevent OIIRR, the high adhesion and injectability of CCOD may provide better therapeutic ideas for clinical prevention of OIIRR.

Gadus morhua Eggs Sialoglycoprotein Prevent Estrogen Deficiency-Induced High Bone Turnover by Controlling OPG/RANKL/TRAF6 Pathway and Serum Metabolism

In recent years, the development of safe and effective anti-osteoporosis factors has attracted extensive attention. In this study, an estrogen-deficient osteoporosis rat model was employed to study the improving mechanism of sialoglycoprotein isolated from Gadus morhua eggs (Gds) against osteoporosis. The results showed that compared with OVX, Gds ameliorated the trabecular microstructure, especially the increased trabecular thickness, decreased trabecular separation, and enhanced the trabecular number. The analysis of qRT-PCR and western blotting found that Gds reduced bone resorption by inhibiting RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis. The LC-MS/MS was used to investigate serum metabolism, and the enrichment metabolites were analyzed by the KEGG pathway. The results revealed that the Gds significantly altered the fat anabolism pathway, which includes ovarian steroidogenesis pathway and arachidonic acid metabolism pathway. Altogether, Gds could improve osteoporosis by suppressing high bone turnover via controlling OPG/RANKL/TRAF6 pathway, which is implicated with ovarian steroidogenesis pathway and arachidonic acid metabolism pathway. These findings indicated that Gds could be a candidate factor for anti-osteoporosis.

Effects of Icariin on Modulating Gut Microbiota and Regulating Metabolite Alterations to Prevent Bone Loss in Ovariectomized Rat Model

Postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP) is an estrogen deficiency-induced bone loss, which has been shown an association with an altered gut microbiota (GM). Gut microbiota-bone axis has been recognized as a crucial mediator for bone homeostasis. Icariin (ICA) is an effective agent to delay bone loss by regulating the bone homeostasis. Thus, we hypothesize that ICA can prevent bone loss by modulating GM and regulating metabolite alterations. The effects of ICA on bone metabolism improvement in ovariectomized (OVX) rats and their relationships with the GM and fecal metabolites were investigated. Micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining showed a typical bone boss in OVX group, while ICA or estradiol (E2) administration exhibited positive effects on bone micro-architecture improvement. The GM such as Actinobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Erysipelotrichi, Erysipelotrichales, Enterobacteriales, Actinomycetales, Ruminococcus and Oscillospira significantly correlated to serum bone Gla-protein (BGP), receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANK), receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL), osteoprotegerin (OPG) and tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRACP). Further t-test revealed a substantial variation of the GM and fecal metabolites in different treatments. Among them, Lachnoclostridium, Butyricimonas, Rikenella, Paraprevolla, Adlercreutzia, Enterorhabdus, Anaerovorax, Allobaculum, Elusimicrobium, Lactococcus, Globicatella and Lactobacillus were probably the key microbial communities driving the change of bile acid, amino acid and fatty acid, thereby leading to an improvement of PMOP. The significant up-regulation of L-Saccharopine, 1-Aminocyclohexadieneacid and linoleic acid after ICA administration suggested important contributions of amino acid and fatty acid metabolisms in the prevention and treatment of PMOP. Taken together, our study has provided new perspectives to better understand the effects of ICA on PMOP improvement by regulating GM and the associated fecal metabolites. Our findings contribute to develop ICA as a potential therapy for PMOP.

Exosomal miR-132-3p from mesenchymal stem cells alleviated LPS-induced acute lung injury by repressing TRAF6

Exosomes isolated from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) had shown beneficial effect on acute lung injury (ALI). However, the effective components in MSC-derived exosomes need further investigation. ALI mice model was established by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection. In vitro inflammatory model was established by LPS stimulation of MLE-12 cells. The cell proliferation was evaluated by EdU assay. TUNEL and Annexin V/PI were applied to evaluate the apoptosis of tissue and cell respectively. HE staining was performed to evaluate the lung injury. Transmission electronic microscope was used to observe isolated exosomes. Level of cytokines, MDA, KGF were determined by ELISA kit. Direct interaction of miR-132-3p and TRAF6 were verified by dual luciferase assay. The level of mRNA or proteins were determined by qRT-PCR or western blots respectively. TRAF6 was upregulated while miR-132-3p was downregulated in LPS-stimulated ALI model. MiR-132-3p negatively regulated TRAF6 by direct binding. MiR-132-3p potentiated proliferation and suppressed apoptosis of LPS-induced MLE-12 cells at least partly dependent on targeting TRAF6. Treatment of exosome alleviated the LPS-induced ALI in mice and LPS-induced inflammatory response in MLE-12 cells. Moreover, overexpression of miR-132-3p promoted the protective effect of exosomes in LPS-induced MLE-12 cells injury and LPS-induced ALI. Mechanically, it was suggested that miR-132-3p inactivated PI3K/Akt signalling via targeting TRAF6. In the present study, our results indicated that miR-132-3p mediated protective effect of MSC-derived exosomes on LPS-induced ALI. Exosomal miR-132-3p ameliorated LPS-induced ALI via targeting TRAF6 and inactivating PI3K/Akt signalling.

Buyuan decoction inhibits autophagy in a rat model of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Efforts have been made to find a better therapeutic approach with fewer side effects in treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This study investigated the effect of Buyuan decoction (BYD) on autophagy in COPD rats. An experimental model with Sprague-Dawley rats was established by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection and cigarette smoke exposure. Rats were randomly allocated into blank control (normal control), experimental model, low-dose BYD (8.0 g/kg/day), medium-dose BYD (16.0 g/kg/day), high-dose BYD (32.0 g/kg/day) and 3-MA (methyladenine) groups (6 rats/group). Cell and tissue morphology were observed using hematoxylin and eosin staining. Autophagic vesicles were examined with a transmission electron microscope. Protein expression of LC3-II/I, BNIP-1, ATG7, p62, PI3K and p-PI3K in lung tissue was detected by Western blotting. Compared with the experimental model group, the inflammatory infiltrate in lung tissue was reduced, the nuclei of the pulmonary epithelial cells were restored to normal, and the expression of LC3, BNIP1, ATG7 and p-PI3K was significantly downregulated, while p62 expression was significantly upregulated after treatment with the BYD. The effect was most significant in the lowdose BYD group (P<0.05, all groups). These findings suggest that the BYD inhibits the occurrence of autophagy in the pathogenesis of COPD and that it can be a potential treatment.

The relationship between TRAF6 and tumors

Tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-related factors (TRAFs) are important linker molecules in the tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF) and the Toll-like/interleukin-1 receptor (TLR/ILR) superfamily. There are seven members: TRAF1-TRAF7, among those members, tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) is upregulated in various tumors, which has been related to tumorigenesis and development. With the in-depth study of the relationship between TRAF6 and different types of tumors, TRAF6 has oncogenic characteristics involved in tumorigenesis, tumor development, invasion, and metastasis through various signaling pathways, therefore, targeting TRAF6 has provided a novel strategy for tumor treatment. This review summarizes and analyzes the role of TRAF6 in tumorigenesis and tumor development in combination with the current research on TRAF6 and tumors.

Unraveling Plant Natural Chemical Diversity for Drug Discovery Purposes

The screening and testing of extracts against a variety of pharmacological targets in order to benefit from the immense natural chemical diversity is a concern in many laboratories worldwide. And several successes have been recorded in finding new actives in natural products, some of which have become new drugs or new sources of inspiration for drugs. But in view of the vast amount of research on the subject, it is surprising that not more drug candidates were found. In our view, it is fundamental to reflect upon the approaches of such drug discovery programs and the technical processes that are used, along with their inherent difficulties and biases. Based on an extensive survey of recent publications, we discuss the origin and the variety of natural chemical diversity as well as the strategies to having the potential to embrace this diversity. It seemed to us that some of the difficulties of the area could be related with the technical approaches that are used, so the present review begins with synthetizing some of the more used discovery strategies, exemplifying some key points, in order to address some of their limitations. It appears that one of the challenges of natural product-based drug discovery programs should be an easier access to renewable sources of plant-derived products. Maximizing the use of the data together with the exploration of chemical diversity while working on reasonable supply of natural product-based entities could be a way to answer this challenge. We suggested alternative ways to access and explore part of this chemical diversity with in vitro cultures. We also reinforced how important it was organizing and making available this worldwide knowledge in an "inventory" of natural products and their sources. And finally, we focused on strategies based on synthetic biology and syntheses that allow reaching industrial scale supply. Approaches based on the opportunities lying in untapped natural plant chemical diversity are also considered.

Antitumor activity of celastrol by inhibition of proliferation, invasion, and migration in cholangiocarcinoma via PTEN/PI3K/Akt pathway

AIM

Cholangiocarcinoma is a malignant tumor originating from bile duct epithelium. Currently, the treatment strategy is very limited and the prognosis is poor. Recent studies reported celastrol exhibits antigrowth and antimetastasis properties in many tumors. Our study aimed to assess the anti-CCA effects of cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) and the mechanisms involved in it.

METHODS

In this study, the long-term and short-term antiproliferation effects was determined using colony formation and Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assays, respectively. Flow cytometry was performed to quantify apoptosis. Furthermore, wound healing and transwell assays were performed to determine the cell migration and invasion capabilities, respectively. To further find the mechanism involved in the celastrol-induced biological functions, LY204002, a PI3K/Akt signaling inhibitor, and an Akt-1 overexpression plasmid were employed to find whether PI3K/Akt pathway was involved in the celastrol-induced CCA cell inhibition. Additionally, short interfering RNA (siRNA) was also used to investigate the mechanism involved in the celastrol-induced PI3K/Akt signaling inhibition. Western blotting and immunofluorescence assays were also performed to detect the degree of relative proteins. Moreover, we validated the antiproliferation and antimetastasis effects of celastrol in vivo by constructing subcutaneous and lung metastasis nude mice models.

RESULTS

We discovered that celastrol effectively induced apoptotic cell death and inhibited the capacity of migration and invasion in CCA cells. Further mechanistic study identified that celastrol regulated the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, and the antitumor efficacy was likely due to the upregulation of PTEN, a negative regulator of PI3K/Akt. Blockage of PTEN abolished the celastrol-induced PI3K/Akt signaling inhibition. Additionally, in vivo experiments conformed celastrol inhibited the tumor growth and lung metastasis with no serious side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our study elucidated a mechanistic framework for the anti-CCA effects of celastrol via PTEN/PI3K/Akt pathway.

Anti-Osteoporotic Activity of an Edible Traditional Chinese Medicine Cistanche deserticola on Bone Metabolism of Ovariectomized Rats Through RANKL/RANK/TRAF6-Mediated Signaling Pathways

Given the limitations of existing therapeutic agents for treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis, there still remains a need for more options with both efficacy and less adverse effects. Cistanche deserticola Y. C. Ma is known as a popular tonic herb traditionally used to treatment deficiency of kidney energy including muscle weakness in minority area of Asian counties. Based on the theory of “kidney dominate bone,” an ovariectomized (OVX) rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis was used to evaluate the therapeutic effect of C. deserticola extract (CDE) on bone loss. Forty eight female Sprague-Dawley rats, aged about 12 weeks, were randomly assigned into six groups including sham group orally administrated with 0.5% carboxymethyl cellulose sodium (CMC-Na) (sham), positive group treated with 1 mg/kg of estradiol valerate (EV), low, moderate, and high dosage groups orally administrated with 200, 400, and 800 mg/kg/day of CDE, respectively. After 3 months of continuous intervention, CDE exhibited significant anti-osteoporotic activity evidenced by the enhanced total bone mineral density, ameliorated bone microarchitecture; increased alkaline phosphatase activity; decreased deoxypyridinoline, cathepsin K, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, and malondialdehyde levels; whereas the body, uterus, and vagina weights in OVX rats were not influenced by CDE intervention. In addition, a seemed contradictory phenomenon on levels of calcium and phosphorus between OVX and sham rats were observed and elucidated. Mechanistically, CDE significantly down-regulated the levels of TRAF6, RANKL, RANK, NF-κB, IKKβ, NFAT2, and up-regulated the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), AKT, osteoprotegerin, and c-Fos expressions, which implied CDE could suppress RANKL/RANK-induced activation of downstream NF-κB and PI3K/AKT pathways, and ultimately, preventing activity of the key osteoclastogenic proteins NFAT2 and c-Fos. All of the data suggested CDE possessed potential anti-osteoporotic activity and this effect was, at least in part, involved in modulation of RANKL/RANK/TRAF6-mediated NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling as well as c-Fos and NFAT2 levels. Therefore, CDE may represent a useful promising remedy candidate for treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Beneficial Effects of Total Phenylethanoid Glycoside Fraction Isolated from Cistanche deserticola on Bone Microstructure in Ovariectomized Rats

The present study was designed to estimate the antiosteoporotic activity of total phenylethanoid glycoside fraction isolated from C. deserticola (CDP) on rats induced by ovariectomy (OVX) as well as the related mechanisms. After 3 months of oral administration, the decreased bone mineral density, serum Ca, and P in OVX rats were recovered and the deteriorated trabecular bone microarchitecture was partly improved by CDP (60, 120, and 240 mg/kg) intervention, the activities of bone resorption markers were downregulated, and the bioactive of the bone formation index was upregulated; meanwhile, the content of MDA was declined, and GSH was increased by CDP treatment. Compositionally, 8 phenylethanoid glycoside compounds were identified in CDP, with the total contents quantified as 50.3% by using the HPLC method. Mechanistically, CDP declined the levels of TRAF6, RANKL, and RANK, thus suppressing RANKL/RANK/TRAF6-induced activation of downstream NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways and ultimately preventing activities of the key osteoclastogenic proteins of NFAT2 and c-Fos. All of the above data implied that CDP exhibited beneficial effects on bone microstructure in ovariectomized rats, and these effects may be related to the NF-κB and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways which were triggered by the binding of RANKL, RANK, and TRAF6.

Cynomorium songaricum Extract Alleviates Memory Impairment through Increasing CREB/BDNF via Suppression of p38MAPK/ERK Pathway in Ovariectomized Rats

Cynomorium songaricum Rupr is a very important traditional Chinese medicine for tonifying the kidney, which has a significant effect on improving estrogen level on the long term. In many studies, it can improve the learning and memory function of ovariectomized (OVX) model animals. 10 of the 50 rats received only bilateral back surgery and were harvested with the same amount of fat as the ovaries without removing the ovaries as sham group; remains underwent bilateral ovariectomy and equally randomized into five groups: sham group, with OVX as model group, estradiol valerate (EV, 0.2 mg/kg) as positive control, with 3.3 and 33 mg/kg body weight/day of ethyl acetate extract of Cynomorium songaricum extract (CSE) as low and high dosage groups, respectively. The orally administered CSE to ovariectomized rats exerted an ameliorative effect on learning and memory in the Morris water maze tests. All rats were sacrificed after 8 weeks of treatment, and tissue was analyzed using histopathology and electron microscopy. To comprehensively examine the mechanism, brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), p-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p-p38MAPK), extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK), p-extracellular regulated protein kinases (p-ERK), and p-cAMP-response element binding protein (p-CREB) were detected by Western blotting. Using histopathology and electron microscopy, it was clearly observed that the pyramidal neurons of the hippocampal CA1 area were reduced in the OVX groups, indicating that CSE could attenuate the loss of pyramidal neurons in hippocampal CA1 and revert the synaptic morphological variations produced by ovariectomy. Mechanistically, the expressions of p-p38MAPK and p-ERK levels were significantly downregulated by CSE intervention, whereas the BDNF and p-CREB were significantly upregulated by CSE as compared to the control. Concisely, Cynomorium songaricum Rupr exhibited potential therapeutic effect on Neuroprotection of ovariectomized rats, and its effect was possibly exerted by p-CREB/BDNF mediated down regulation of ERK/p38MAPK.