Children's writing ability: Effects of parent's education, mental speed and intelligence

Promoting Third Graders' Executive Functions and Literacy: A Pilot Study Examining the Benefits of Mindfulness vs. Relaxation Training

Research suggested that developing mindfulness skills in children improves proximal outcomes, such as attention and executive functions, as well as distal outcomes, such as academic achievement. Despite empirical evidence supporting this claim, research on the benefits of mindfulness training in child populations is scarce, with some mixed findings in the field. Here, we aimed to fill in this gap, by examining the effects of a mindfulness training on third graders' proximal and distal outcomes, namely, attention and executive functions (viz., inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) as well as literacy-related achievement (viz., handwriting fluency, text quality, Portuguese grades). These outcomes were measured with behavioral tasks and teacher ratings. Sixty-six Portuguese children were randomly allocated to an experimental group receiving mindfulness training (n = 29) or an active control group receiving relaxation training (n = 37). Both training programs were implemented by psychologists in two 30-min weekly sessions for 8 weeks. All students were assessed before and after the interventions. Three main findings are noteworthy: (a) mindfulness training enhanced teacher-rated cognitive flexibility and a performance-based composite score of executive functions among children with higher pretest scores; (b) relaxation training improved performance-based cognitive flexibility and the composite score of executive functions among children with lower pretest scores; (c) children receiving mindfulness training had higher handwriting fluency and better grades in Portuguese than those receiving relaxation training. These findings provide preliminary evidence on the benefits of mindfulness training in educational settings and highlight the moderating role of baseline performance on those benefits.

Piagetian Tasks and Psychometric Intelligence: Different or Similar Constructs?

Research on cognitive ability is done in different paradigms. In the Piagetian paradigm, cognitive ability focuses on cognitive development along qualitative stages. Interactive real scenarios, "Piagetian tasks", are constructed for measurement. According to age, tasks differing in complexity are applied in individual measurements. In the psychometric paradigm, the investigation of cognitive ability focuses on individual differences. Intelligence is seen as a quantitative construct with gradual differences between persons and ages. Paper-and-pencil tests with items differing in difficulty are used for IQ measurement of single persons or school classes. However, do those tasks measure two distinct cognitive abilities? Solving tasks in both approaches requires basic (speed, working memory) and complex cognitive abilities (reasoning, understanding). Regarding empirical relationships, we used three Austrian samples (in kindergarten four to six years old N = 40, in primary school six to eight years old N = 40, and nine to ten years old N = 41). They were tested with psychometric tests (Raven CPM or SPM) and Piagetian tasks. In addition, mental speed (ZVT) was measured in the two school samples. The average observed correlation between IQ and Piagetian tasks was r = .51. In factor analyses, the tests loaded on a common factor of general intelligence. Further analyses revealed that mental speed is correlated more strongly with psychometric (r = .50) than with Piagetian tasks (r = .39), while Piagetian tasks are more related to parental education indicators (speed: r = .11, Raven: r = .20, Piaget: r = .25).

Does Blindness Boost Working Memory? A Natural Experiment and Cross-Cultural Study

Intelligence requires sufficient working-memory capacity. Traditionally, working memory was seen as a process and as a prerequisite for fluid intelligence. Working memory was assumed to be determined by maturation and health. There is a gap in the literature: It is still not fully understood to which extent and how working memory can be influenced. So this study tested how visual impairment and the extent of visual impairment are related to working memory capacity. In our study we compared N = 249 children (6–16 years) with and without visual impairment (blind, visually impaired, and sighted) in two countries (South Africa and Austria) at different development levels on their working-memory capacity and verbal comprehension. Using the WISC-IV, blind and visually impaired children showed higher working-memory capacity than sighted children (r = + 0.35, 14, and 3 IQ points, respectively). On the other hand, visually impaired children showed a weakness in verbal comprehension (r = −0.39, on average 13 IQ points lower). The pattern remained robust when SES and race-ethnicity were controlled. Our natural (quasi-)experiment shows a pattern, which is unlikely to be genetic, and so supports the view that working memory and intelligence scores can be modified.

Can upper limb taping or exercises improve hand function, writing speed and self-perception of performance in adolescent school children?

BACKGROUND

The majority of students spend time in writing, which is a prime performance measure in examinations. Enhancement in handwriting should benefit students to attain better academic performance.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effectiveness of taping and exercises on hand function, writing speed, self-perception of writing and to compare these techniques.

METHODS

A randomized control trial was conducted using cluster sampling in adolescent children across four schools in an urban city. A 4-week intervention study was conducted on 123 students divided into taping, exercise and control groups. Outcome measures were grip strength, pinch strength, 12-min writing speed test and the Writer Self-Perception Scale (WSPS). For intra-group analysis, a paired t-test was used for parametric values and the Wilcoxon signed rank test was used for non-parametric values. For inter-group analysis, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for parametric values and the Kruskal-Wallis test for non-parametric values was used.

RESULTS

The taping group showed a significant improvement in grip strength (1.79 kg; p = 0.00), pinch strength [1.67 lb (757.4 g); p = 0.00] and writing speed (39.77 words/12 min; p = 0.00). The exercise group showed significant improvement in grip strength (2.09 kg; p = 0.00), pinch strength (1.28 lb; p = 0.00), writing speed (28.38 words/12 min; p = 0.00). In the control group, there was a significant increase in pinch strength (1.023 lb; p = 0.01) and writing speed (12.94 words/12 min; p = 0.02). Inter-group analysis showed significant difference in writing speed (p = 0.002) and grip strength (p = 0.00). There was no significant difference in perception (p = 0.071).

CONCLUSION

Taping and exercise are equally effective for enhancement of hand function, writing speed and self-perception in adolescent school children.

The Structure of Intelligence in Childhood: Age and Socio-Familiar Impact on Cognitive Differentiation

The Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory is the principal model at present to define and assess intelligence. However, several authors have suggested that the structure of intelligence is not stable throughout life. For example, children tend to present a general ability, which is invested in the development of specific and differentiated abilities during adolescence, reflecting the effect of schooling, experiences, and interests. In this study, an intelligence nine subtests battery was applied to a sample of 470 5-, 7-, and 9-year-old Portuguese children, from public and private basic schools. Two structure models have been tested, one assuming a global general factor loading by the nine subtests, and a second one formed by two factors integrating the verbal and non-verbal subtests. The results provide evidence of better fit of the second model where intelligence performance is organized in traditional verbal and non-verbal factors. This structure model is confirmed taking 5-, 7-, and 9-year-old children subgroups. A posterior path analysis verifies the impact of socio-familial variables in both factors. More than parents' educational levels and professional status, the results suggest the sibship size appears as more relevant on explanation of children cognitive performance.

Desempenho Cognitivo na Infância: A Mãe e o Meio Urbano fazem a Diferença

RESUMO Apesar das controvérsias sobre o conceito e a avaliação da inteligência, o desempenho cognitivo assume um papel fundamental no contexto educativo e são múltiplos os fatores que lhe estão associados. Este estudo toma uma amostra aleatória e representativa de 1201 crianças do 2.º ciclo do ensino básico de escolas públicas portuguesas, com idades entre 9 e 14 anos. Discute-se o impacto das variáveis sociofamiliares (profissão da mãe e do pai, escolaridade da mãe e do pai e meio de pertença urbano vs rural). Os resultados destacam a relevância dessas variáveis para a explicação do desempenho cognitivo dos alunos, especialmente a escolaridade da mãe e o meio urbano de proveniência. Apresentam-se considerações práticas voltadas à equidade do sistema educativo.

Inteligência e rendimento escolar: Implicações para a sala de aula || Intelligence and school performance in childhood: Implications for the classroom

A inteligência é um dos conceitos mais estudados e simultaneamente mais controversos na área da investigação em psicologia, mantendo uma importância destacada no âmbito escolar pela associação aos processos básicos da cognição e da aprendizagem, e, por esta via, ao sucesso escolar dos alunos. Baseado numa pesquisa e reflexão atual sobre o estado da arte do tema, este artigo tem como objetivo contribuir para a discussão em torno de três eixos temáticos: (i) conceito e estrutura da inteligência; (ii) sua relação com variáveis sociofamiliares, assumindo neste caso a inteligência como dimensão psicológica moldada pelas variáveis contextuais do desenvolvimento psicossocial dos indivíduos; e (iii) seu impacto na aprendizagem e no rendimento académico de crianças e adolescentes. Defendendo-se que a inteligência é variável imprescindível à aprendizagem, mesmo que não suficiente, este artigo termina, numa lógica otimista, apontando algumas formas de rentabilização e promoção das habilidades cognitivas dos alunos por parte do sistema educativo.

Future Cognitive Ability: US IQ Prediction until 2060 Based on NAEP

The US National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) measures cognitive competences in reading and mathematics of US students (last 2012 survey N = 50,000). The long-term development based on results from 1971 to 2012 allows a prediction of future cognitive trends. For predicting US averages also demographic trends have to be considered. The largest groups' (White) average of 1978/80 was set at M = 100 and SD = 15 and was used as a benchmark. Based on two past NAEP development periods for 17-year-old students, 1978/80 to 2012 (more optimistic) and 1992 to 2012 (more pessimistic), and demographic projections from the US Census Bureau, cognitive trends until 2060 for the entire age cohort and ethnic groups were estimated. Estimated population averages for 2060 are 103 (optimistic) or 102 (pessimistic). The average rise per decade is dec = 0.76 or 0.45 IQ points. White-Black and White-Hispanic gaps are declining by half, Asian-White gaps treble. The catch-up of minorities (their faster ability growth) contributes around 2 IQ to the general rise of 3 IQ; however, their larger demographic increase reduces the general rise at about the similar amount (-1.4 IQ). Because minorities with faster ability growth also rise in their population proportion the interactive term is positive (around 1 IQ). Consequences for economic and societal development are discussed.

Neuropsychological Profiles of Written Expression Learning Disabilities Determined by Concordance-Discordance Model Criteria

Children with specific learning disabilities (SLD) have disparate neuropsychological processing deficits that interfere with academic achievement in spelling, writing fluency, and/or written expression (WE). Although there are multiple potential causes of WE SLD, there is a paucity of research exploring this critical academic skill from a neuropsychological perspective. This study examined the neuropsychological profiles of WE SLD subtypes defined using the concordance-discordance model (C-DM) of SLD identification. Participants were drawn from a sample of 283 children (194 boys, 89 girls) aged 6 years to 16 years old (M(age) = 9.58 years, SD = 2.29 years) referred for comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations in school settings and subsequently selected based on C-DM determined spelling, writing fluency, and WE SLD. WE SLD subtypes differed on several psychomotor, memory, and executive function measures (F range = 2.48-5.07, p range = .049 to <.001), suggesting that these children exhibit distinct patterns of neuropsychological processing strengths and weaknesses. Findings have relevance for differential diagnosis of WE subtypes, discriminating WE SLD subtypes from low WE achievement, and developing differentiated evidence-based instruction and intervention for children with WE SLD. Limitations and future research will be addressed.

COGNITIVE ABILITY OF PRESCHOOL, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN COSTA RICA

Cognitive abilities of children in Costa Rica and Austria were compared using three age groups (N=385/366). Cognitive ability tests (mental speed, culture reduced/fluid intelligence, literacy/crystallized intelligence) were applied that differed in the extent to which they refer to school-related knowledge. Preschool children (kindergarten, 5–6 years old,NCR=80,NAu=51) were assessed with the Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM), primary school children (4th grade, 9–11 years old,NCR=71,NAu=71) with ZVT (a trail-making test), Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) and items from PIRLS-Reading and TIMSS-Mathematics, and secondary school students (15–16 years old,NCR=48,NAu=48) with ZVT, Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) and items from PISA-Reading and PISA-Mathematics. Additionally, parents and pupils were given questionnaires covering family characteristics and instruction. Average cognitive abilities were higher in Austria (Greenwich-IQMCR=87 andMAu=99,dIQ=12 points) and differences were smaller in preschool than in secondary school (dIQ=7 vs 20 points). Differences in crystallized intelligence were larger than in fluid intelligence (mental speed:dIQ=12, Raven:dIQ=10, student achievement tests:dIQ=17 IQ points). Differences were larger in comparisons at the level ofg-factors. Austrian children were also taller (6.80 cm,d=1.07 SD), but had lower body mass index (BMICR=19.35 vs BMIAu=17.59,d=−0.89 SD). Different causal hypotheses explaining these differences are compared.