Synthesis and characterization of β-cyclodextrin inclusion complexes of thymol and thyme oil for antimicrobial delivery applications

Microencapsulation to Harness the Antimicrobial Potential of Essential Oils and Their Applicability in Dairy Products: A Comprehensive Review of the Literature

This literature review explores cutting-edge microencapsulation techniques designed to enhance the antimicrobial efficacy of essential oils in dairy products. As consumer demand for natural preservatives rises, understanding the latest advancements in microencapsulation becomes crucial for improving the shelf life and safety of these products. The bibliometric analysis utilized in this review highlighted a large number of documents published on this topic in relation to the following keywords: essential oils, AND antimicrobials, AND dairy products, OR microencapsulation. The documents published in the last 11 years, between 2013 and 2023, showed a diversity of authors and countries researching this topic and the keywords commonly used. However, in the literature consulted, no study was identified that was based on bibliometric analysis and that critically evaluated the microencapsulation of essential oils and their antimicrobial potential in dairy products. This review synthesizes findings from diverse studies, shedding light on the various encapsulation methods employed and their impact on preserving the quality of dairy goods. Additionally, it discusses the potential applications and challenges associated with implementation in the dairy industry. This comprehensive analysis aims to provide valuable insights for researchers, food scientists, and industry professionals seeking to optimize the use of essential oils with antimicrobial properties in dairy formulations.

Febuxostat ternary inclusion complex using SBE7-βCD in presence of a water-soluble polymer: physicochemical characterization, in vitro dissolution, and in vivo evaluation

Febuxostat (FBX), a potent xanthine oxidase inhibitor, is widely used as a blood uric acid-reducing agent and has recently shown a promising repurposing outcome as an anti-cancer. FBX is known for its poor water solubility, which is the main cause of its weak oral bioavailability. In a previous study, we developed a binary system complex between FBX and sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin (SBE7-βCD) with improved dissolution behavior. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of incorporating a water-soluble polymer with a binary system forming a ternary one, on further enhancement of FBX solubility and dissolution rate. In vivo oral bioavailability was also studied using LC-MS/MS chromatography. The polymer screening study revealed a marked increment in the solubility of FBX with SBE7-βCD in the presence of 5% w/v polyethylene glycol (PEG 6000). In vitro release profile showed a significant increase in the dissolution rate of FBX from FBX ternary complex (FTC). Oral in vivo bioavailability of prepared FTC showed more than threefold enhancement in Cmax value (17.05 ± 2.6 µg/mL) compared to pure FBX Cmax value (5.013 ± 0.417 µg/mL) with 257% rise in bioavailability. In conclusion, the association of water-soluble polymers with FBX and SBE7-βCD system could significantly improve therapeutic applications of the drug.

Cyclodextrins and their potential applications for delivering vitamins, iron, and iodine for improving micronutrient status

Cyclodextrins (CDs) have been investigated as potential biopolymeric carriers that can form inclusion complexes with numerous bioactive ingredients. The inclusion of micronutrients (e.g. vitamins or minerals) into cyclodextrins can enhance their solubility and provide oxidative or thermal stability. It also enables the formulation of products with extended shelf-life. The designed delivery systems with CDs and their inclusion complexes including electrospun nanofibers, emulsions, liposomes, and hydrogels, show potential in enhancing the solubility and oxidative stability of micronutrients while enabling their controlled and sustained release in applications including food packaging, fortified foods and dietary supplements. Nano or micrometer-sized delivery systems capable of controlling burst release and permeation, or moderating skin hydration have been reported, which can facilitate the formulation of several personal and skin care products for topical or transdermal delivery of micronutrients. This review highlights recent developments in the application of CDs for the delivery of micronutrients, i.e. vitamins, iron, and iodine, which play key roles in the human body, emphasizing their existing and potential applications in the food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmeceuticals industries.

Antimicrobial Activities of Pistacia lentiscus Essential Oils Nanoencapsulated into Hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrins

The rising risks of food microbial contamination and foodborne pathogens resistance have prompted an increasing interest in natural antimicrobials as promising alternatives to synthetic antimicrobials. Essential oils (EOs) obtained from natural sources have shown promising anticancer, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. EOs extracted from the resins of Pistacia lentiscus var. Chia are widely utilized for the treatment of skin inflammations, gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory infections, wound healing, and cancers. The therapeutic benefits of P. lentiscusessential oils (PO) are limited by their low solubility, poor bioavailability, and high volatility. Nanoencapsulation of PO can improve their physicochemical properties and consequently their therapeutic efficacy while overcoming their undesirable side effects. Hence, PO was extracted from the resins of P. lentiscusvia hydrodistillation. Then, PO was encapsulated into (2-hydroxypropyl)-beta-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) via freeze-drying. The obtained inclusion complexes (PO-ICs) appeared as round vesicles (22.62 to 63.19 nm) forming several agglomerations (180 to 350 nm), as detected by UHR-TEM, with remarkable entrapment efficiency (89.59 ± 1.47%) and a PDI of 0.1475 ± 0.0005. Furthermore, the encapsulation and stability of PO-ICs were confirmed via FE-SEM, 1H NMR, 2D HNMR (NOESY), FT-IR, UHR-TEM, and DSC. DSC revealed a higher thermal stability of the PO-ICs, reaching 351.0 °C. PO-ICs exerted substantial antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli as compared to free PO. PO-ICs showed significant enhancement in the antibacterial activity of the encapsulated PO against S. aureus with an MIC90 of 2.84 mg/mL and against P. aeruginosa with MIC90 of 3.62 mg/mL and MIC50 of 0.56 mg/mL. In addition, PO-ICs showed greater antimicrobial activity against E. coli by 6-fold with an MIC90 of 0.89 mg/mL, compared to free PO, which showed an MIC90 of 5.38 mg/mL. In conclusion, the encapsulation of PO into HPβCD enhanced its aqueous solubility, stability, and penetration ability, resulting in a significantly higher antibacterial activity.

Improved antimicrobial activities of Boswellia sacra essential oils nanoencapsulated into hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrins

Natural antimicrobials have recently gained increasing interest over synthetic antimicrobials to overcome foodborne pathogens and food microbial contamination. Essential oils (EOs) obtained from Boswellia sacra resins (BO) were utilized for respiratory disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, malignant tumors, and viral infections. Like other EOs, the therapeutic potential of BO is hindered by its low solubility and bioavailability, poor stability, and high volatility. Several studies have shown excellent physicochemical properties and outstanding therapeutic capabilities of EOs encapsulated into various nanocarriers. This study extracted BO from B. sacra resins via hydrodistillation and encapsulated it into hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrins (HPβCD) using the freeze-drying method. The developed inclusion complexes of BO (BO-ICs) had high encapsulation efficiency (96.79 ± 1.17%) and a polydispersity index of 0.1045 ± 0.0006. BO-ICs showed presumably spherical vesicles (38.5 to 59.9 nm) forming multiple agglomerations (136.9 to 336.8 nm), as determined by UHR-TEM. Also, the formation and stability of BO-ICs were investigated using DSC, FTIR, FE-SEM, UHR-TEM, 1H NMR, and 2D HNMR (NOESY). BO-ICs showed greater thermal stability (362.7 °C). Moreover, compared to free BO, a remarkable enhancement in the antimicrobial activities of BO-ICs was shown against three different bacteria: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. BO-ICs displayed significant antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa with an MIC90 of 3.93 mg mL-1 and an MIC50 of 0.57 mg mL-1. Also, BO-ICs showed an increase in BO activity against Escherichia coli with an MIC95 of 3.97 mg mL-1, compared to free BO, which failed to show an MIC95. Additionally, BO-ICs showed a more significant activity against Staphylococcus aureus with an MIC95 of 3.92 mg mL-1. BO encapsulation showed significantly improved antimicrobial activities owing to the better stability, bioavailability, and penetration ability imparted by encapsulation into HPβCD.

Cyclodextrin: A prospective nanocarrier for the delivery of antibacterial agents against bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics

Supramolecular chemistry introduces us to the macrocyclic host cyclodextrin, which has a hydrophobic cavity. The hydrophobic cavity has a higher affinity for hydrophobic guest molecules and forms host-guest complexation with non-covalent interaction. Three significant cyclodextrin kinds are α-cyclodextrin, β-cyclodextrin, and γ-cyclodextrin. The most often utilized is β-cyclodextrin (β-CD). An effective weapon against bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics is cyclodextrin. Several different kinds of cyclodextrin nanocarriers (β-CD, HP-β-CD, Meth-β-CD, cationic CD, sugar-grafted CD) are utilized to enhance the solubility, stability, dissolution, absorption, bioavailability, and permeability of the antibiotics. Cyclodextrin also improves the effectiveness of antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides, metallic nanoparticles, and photodynamic therapy (PDT). Again, cyclodextrin nanocarriers offer slow-release properties for sustained-release formulations where steady-state plasma antibiotic concentration is needed for an extended time. A novel strategy to combat bacterial resistance is a stimulus (pH, ROS)-responsive antibiotics released from cyclodextrin carrier. Once again, cyclodextrin traps autoinducer (AI), a crucial part of bacterial quorum sensing, and reduces virulence factors, including biofilm formation. Cyclodextrin helps to minimize MIC in particular bacterial strains, keep antibiotic concentrations above MIC in the infection site and minimize the possibility of antibiotic and biofilm resistance. Sessile bacteria trapped in biofilms are more resistant to antibiotic therapy than bacteria in a planktonic form. Cyclodextrin also involves delivering antibiotics to biofilm and resistant bacteria to combat bacterial resistance.

Enhancing chemical and physical stability of pharmaceuticals using freeze-thaw method: challenges and opportunities for process optimization through quality by design approach

The freeze-thaw (F/T) method is commonly employed during the processing and handling of drug substances to enhance their chemical and physical stability and obtain pharmaceutical applications such as hydrogels, emulsions, and nanosystems (e.g., supramolecular complexes of cyclodextrins and liposomes). Using F/T in manufacturing hydrogels successfully prevents the need for toxic cross-linking agents; moreover, their use promotes a concentrated product and better stability in emulsions. However, the use of F/T in these applications is limited by their characteristics (e.g., porosity, flexibility, swelling capacity, drug loading, and drug release capacity), which depend on the optimization of process conditions and the kind and ratio of polymers, temperature, time, and the number of cycles that involve high physical stress that could change properties associated to quality attributes. Therefore, is necessary the optimization of F/T conditions and variables. The current research regarding F/T is focused on enhancing the formulations, the process, and the use of this method in pharmaceutical, clinical, and biological areas. The present review aims to discuss different studies related to the impact and effects of the F/T process on the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties (porosity, swelling capacity) of diverse pharmaceutical applications with an emphasis on their formulation properties, the method and variables used, as well as challenges and opportunities in developing. Finally, we review the experimental approach for choosing the standard variables studied in the F/T method applying the systematic methodology of quality by design.

Cellulose Nanofiber Platform for Pesticide Sequestration in the Gastrointestinal Tract

Exploitation of nature-derived materials is an important approach to promote environmental sustainability. Among these materials, cellulose is of particular interest due to its abundance and relative ease of access. As a food ingredient, cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have found interesting applications as emulsifiers and modulators of lipid digestion and absorption. In this report, we show that CNFs can also be modified to modulate the bioavailability of toxins, such as pesticides, in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) by forming inclusion complexes and promoting interaction with surface hydroxyl groups. CNFs were successfully functionalized with (2-hydroxypropyl)-β-cyclodextrin (HPBCD) using citric acid as a crosslinker via esterification. Functionally, the potential for pristine and functionalized CNFs (FCNFs) to interact with a model pesticide, boscalid, was tested. Based on direct interaction studies, adsorption of boscalid saturated at around 3.09% on CNFs and at 12.62% on FCNFs. Using an in vitro GIT simulation platform, the adsorption of boscalid on CNFs/FCNFs was also studied. The presence of a high-fat food model was found to have a positive effect in binding boscalid in a simulated intestinal fluid environment. In addition, FCNFs were found to have a greater effect in retarding triglyceride digestion than CNFs (61% vs 30.6%). Overall, FCNFs were demonstrated to evoke synergistic effects of reducing fat absorption and pesticide bioavailability through inclusion complex formation and the additional binding of the pesticide onto surface hydroxyl groups on HPBCD. By adopting food-compatible materials and processes for production, FCNFs have the potential to be developed into a functional food ingredient for modulating food digestion and the uptake of toxins.

Interactions between plant-derived antioxidants and cyclodextrins and their application for improving separation, detection, and food quality issues

Plant-derived antioxidants (PD-AOs) are important for food preservation, as well as for human health and nutrition. However, the poor chemical stability and water solubility of many PD-AOs currently limit their application as functional ingredients in foods and pharmaceuticals. Moreover, it is often difficult to isolate and detect specific antioxidants in multi-component systems, which again limits their potential in the food and medical industries. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the use of cyclodextrins (CDs) to overcome these limitations by forming simple, modified and competitive host-guest interactions with PD-AO. The host-guest properties of CDs can be used to enhance the separation efficiency of PD-AOs, as well as to improve their dispersion and stability in food systems. Moreover, the competitive complexation properties of CDs with target molecules can be used to selectively isolate PD-AOs from multi-component systems and develop detection technologies for PD-AOs. Overall, CD-antioxidant interactions have great potential for addressing isolation, detection, and food quality issues.

Biotechnological advancements towards water, food and medical healthcare: A review

The global health status is highly affected by the growing pace of urbanization, new lifestyles, climate changes, and resource exploitation. Modern technologies pave a promising way to deal with severe concerns toward sustainable development. Herein, we provided a comprehensive review of some popular biotechnological advancements regarding the progress achieved in water, food, and medicine, as the most substantial fields related to public health. The emergence of novel organic/inorganic materials has brought about significant improvement in conventional water treatment techniques, anti-fouling approaches, anti-microbial agents, food processing, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and implants. Particularly, a growing interest has been devoted to nanomaterials and their application for developing novel structures or improving the characteristics of standard components. Also, bioinspired materials have been widely used to improve the performance, efficiency, accuracy, stability, safety, and cost-effectiveness of traditional systems. On the other side, the fabrication of innovative devices for precisely monitoring and managing various ecosystem and human health issues is of great importance. Above all, exceptional advancements in designing ion-selective electrodes (ISEs), microelectromechanical systems (MEMs), and implantable medical devices have altered the future landscape of environmental and biomedical research. This review paper aimed to shed light on the wide-ranging materials and devices that have been developed for health applications and mainly focused on the impact of nanotechnology in this field.

Carvacrol and HP-β-Cyclodextrin Complexes: Extensive Characterization and Potential Cytotoxic Effect in Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cells

The aim of this study was to obtain solid carvacrol-cyclodextrin (CD) complexes for use in the pharmaceutical industry. To this end, the complexation of carvacrol at different pH values was studied in detail, to determine the type of CD and the reaction environment that supported the highest amount of encapsulated carvacrol. Evidence of the capability of hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrins (HP-β-CD) to form inclusion complexes with carvacrol (K_C = 5042 ± 176 L mol^-1) and more high complexation efficiency (2.824) was demonstrated for HP-β-CDs using two different energy sources, ultrasound (US) (K_C = 8129 ± 194 L mol^-1 24 h) and microwave irradiation (MWI) (K_C = 6909 ± 161 L mol^-1), followed by spraying the resulting solution in a spray dryer. To confirm complex formation, the complexes were characterized using various instrumental methods to corroborate the carvacrol incorporation into the hydrophobic cavity of HP-β-CD. The obtained carvacrol solid complexes were analyzed by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance (ROSEY), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TG) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) characterization. The structures of the resulting complexes were also characterized by molecular modeling. Furthermore, 1 mM HP-β-CD-carvacrol complex has been shown to reduce cell proliferation in HCT-116 colorectal cancer cells by 43%, much more than in a healthy lung fibroblast MRC-5 cell line (11%).

Controlled Release of Thymol by Cyclodextrin Metal-Organic Frameworks for Preservation of Cherry Tomatoes

Thymol is a phenol monoterpene with potential antifungal, antioxidant and antibacterial activities. Due to the low water solubility and high volatility of thymol, encapsulation serves as an effective tool during application. In the present study, cyclodextrin (CD)-based metal-organic-frameworks (MOFs) were synthesized using α-CD, β-CD, and γ-CD as organic building blocks, and further complexed with thymol to produce three CD-MOF-THY inclusion complexes (ICs). The encapsulation content, release kinetics and fruit preservation effect of ICs were analyzed. Results showed that thymol was well embedded in γ-CD-MOFs, with the highest encapsulation content of 286.7 ± 8.4 mg/g. Release kinetics revealed that CD-MOFs exhibited a controlled release effect toward thymol for 35 days. The release kinetics of three ICs fit the Rigter-Peppas model well, with γ-CD-MOF-THY showing the lowest release rate constant of 2.85 at 50 °C, RH 75%. Moreover, γ-CD-MOF-THY exhibited a remarkable preservation performance on cherry tomatoes with the lowest decay index (18.75%) and weight loss (5.17%) after 15 days of storage, suggesting this material as a potential fresh-keeping material for fruit and vegetable preservation.

Antibacterial Effect and Possible Mechanism of Salicylic Acid Microcapsules against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus

Microcapsules serve as a feasible formulation to load phenolic substances such as salicylic acid, a natural and safe antimicrobial agent. However, the antibacterial efficacy of salicylic acid microcapsules (SAMs) remains to be elucidated. Here, salicylic acid/β-cyclodextrin inclusion microcapsules were subjected to systematic antibacterial assays and preliminary antibacterial mechanism tests using Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus as target organisms. It was found that the core-shell rhomboid-shaped SAMs had a smooth surface. SAMs exhibited a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and a minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 4 mg/mL against both bacteria. In the growth inhibition assay, 1/4 × MIC, 1/2 × MIC, and 1 × MIC of SAMs effectively retarded bacterial growth, and this effect was more prominent with the rise in the level of SAMs. Practically, SAMs possessed a rapid bactericidal effect at the 1 × MIC level with a reduction of more than 99.9% bacterial population within 10 min. A pronounced sterilization activity against E. coli and S. aureus was also observed when SAMs were embedded into hand sanitizers as antimicrobial agents. Moreover, exposure of both bacteria to SAMs resulted in the leakage of intracellular alkaline phosphatases and macromolecular substances (nucleic acids and proteins), which indicated the disruption of bacterial cell walls and cell membranes. In conclusion, SAMs were able to inactivate E. coli and S. aureus both in vitro and in situ, highlighting the promising utilization of this formulation for antimicrobial purposes in the area of food safety and public health.

Preparation, characterization, and antifungal property of the inclusion complex of Litsea cubeba essential oil/hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin and its application in preservation of Shatang mandarin

To explore the potential application of plant essential oil in the postharvest preservation of fruits, the inclusion complex (IC) of Litsea cubeba essential oil (LCEO) with hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD), prepared by the saturated aqueous solution method, was studied. LCEO/HPβCD-IC was characterized by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), particle size distribution, and thermogravimetric-differential scanning calorimetry (TG-DSC) analysis. The formation of LCEO/HPβCD-IC was confirmed, and the volume average particle diameter was 24.376 µm. Due to the inclusion of HPβCD, the volatility of LCEO was significantly reduced and the thermal stability was significantly improved. In addition, the antifungal activities of the LCEO ICs were compared, and LCEO/HPβCD-IC was more effective against the citrus postharvest pathogens (P. italicum and G. citri-aurantii). The effects of the LCEO ICs on the postharvest quality of Shatang mandarin were studied. Compared with the control group (CK) and LCEO/βCD-IC group, the LCEO/HPβCD-IC group showed a significant delay in the decrease of good fruit rate, hardness, total soluble solids (TSSs), and Vitamin C (Vc) content, with a lower weight loss rate of Shatang mandarin. Therefore, LCEO/HPβCD-IC is expected to be used as a green preservative for the storage and preservation of citrus fruits. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: In this study, LCEO was encapsulated in HPβCD by the saturated aqueous solution method and the prepared inclusion complex was characterized. The effects of LCEO/HPβCD-IC and LCEO/βCD-IC on postharvest preservation of Shatang mandarin were compared. This work offers valuable insights into the postharvest preservation of citrus fruit by essential oil inclusion complexes.

Improvement of the antioxidant activity of thyme essential oil against biosynthesized titanium dioxide nanoparticles-induced oxidative stress, DNA damage, and disturbances in gene expression in vivo

BACKGROUND

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs) are widely utilized in medicine and industry; however, their safety in biological organisms is still unclear. In this study, we determined the bioactive constitutes of thyme essential oil (TEO) and utilized the nanoemulsion technique to improve its protective efficiency against oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and DNA damage of biosynthesized titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs).

METHODS

TEO nanoemulsion (TEON) was prepared using whey protein isolate (WPI). Sixty male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into six groups and treated orally for 21 days including the control group, TEO, or TEON- treated groups (5 mg/kg b.w), TiO₂-NPs-treated group (50 mg/kg b.w) and the groups received TiO₂-NPs plus TEO or TEON. Blood and tissues samples were collected for different assays.

RESULTS

The GC-MS analysis identified 17 bioactive compounds in TEO and thymol and carvacrol were the major compounds. TEON was irregular with average particles size of 230 ± 3.7 nm and ζ-potential of -24.17 mV. However, TiO2-NPs showed a polygonal shape with an average size of 50 ± 2.4 nm and ζ-potential of -30.44 mV. Animals that received TiO2-NPs showed severe disturbances in liver and kidney indices, lipid profile, oxidant/antioxidant indices, inflammatory cytokines, gene expressions, increased DNA damage, and pathological changes in hepatic tissue. Both TEO and TEON showed potential protection against these hazards and TEON was more effective than TEO.

CONCLUSION

The nanoemulsion of TEO enhances the oil bioactivity, improves its antioxidant characteristics, and protects against oxidative damage and genotoxicity of TiO2-NPs.

Preparation, Optimization, and Characterization of Inclusion Complexes of Cinnamomum longepaniculatum Essential Oil in β-Cyclodextrin

Cinnamomum longepaniculatum essential oil (CLEO) possesses antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. However, CLEO shows volatilization and poor solubility, which limits its application field. In this research, inclusion complexes of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) with CLEO were produced, and its physicochemical properties were characterized. Response surface methodology was used to obtain optimum preparation conditions. A statistical model was generated to define the interactions among the selected variables. Results show that the optimal conditions were an H2O/β-CD ratio of 9.6:1 and a β-CD/CLEO ratio of 8:1, with the stirring temperature of 20 °C for the maximal encapsulation efficiency values. The physicochemical properties of CLEO/β-CD inclusion complexes (CLEO/β-CD-IC) were investigated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that correlative characteristic bands of CLEO disappeared in the inclusion complex. X-ray diffraction presented different sharp peaks at the diffraction angle of CLEO/β-CD-IC. The thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated the thermal stability of CLEO was enhanced after encapsulation. Tiny aggregates with a smaller size of CLEO/β-CD-IC particles were observed by scanning electron microscopy. The comparison of β-CD, CLEO, and physical mixtures with CLEO/β-CD-IC confirmed the formation of inclusion complexes.

Microencapsulation of Natural Food Antimicrobials: Methods and Applications

The global demand for safe and healthy food with minimal synthetic preservatives is continuously increasing. Some natural food antimicrobials with strong antimicrobial activity and low toxicity have been considered as alternatives for current commercial food preservatives. Nonetheless, these natural food antimicrobials are hardly applied directly to food products due to issues such as food flavor or bioavailability. Recent advances in microencapsulation technology have the potential to provide stable systems for these natural antibacterials, which can then be used directly in food matrices. In this review, we focus on the application of encapsulated natural antimicrobial agents, such as essential oils, plant extracts, bacteriocins, etc., as potential food preservatives to extend the shelf-life of food products. The advantages and drawbacks of the mainly used encapsulation methods, such as molecular inclusion, spray drying, coacervation, emulsification, supercritical antisolvent precipitation and liposome and alginate microbeads, are discussed. Meanwhile, the main current applications of encapsulated antimicrobials in various food products, such as meat, dairy and cereal products for controlling microbial growth, are presented.

Integrating diverse plant bioactive ingredients with cyclodextrins to fabricate functional films for food application: a critical review

The popularity of plant bioactive ingredients has become increasingly apparent in the food industry. However, these plant bioactive ingredients have many deficiencies, including low water solubility, poor stability, and unacceptable odor. Cyclodextrins (CDs), as cyclic molecules, have been extensively studied as superb vehicles of plant bioactive ingredients. These CD inclusion compounds could be added into various film matrices to fabricate bioactive food packaging materials. Therefore, in the present review, we summarized the extraction methods of plant bioactive ingredients, the addition of these CD inclusion compounds into thin-film materials, and their applications in food packaging. Furthermore, the release model and mechanism of active film materials based on various plant bioactive ingredients with CDs were highlighted. Finally, the current challenges and new opportunities based on these film materials have been discussed.

The Role of Microencapsulation in Food Application

Modern microencapsulation techniques are employed to protect active molecules or substances such as vitamins, pigments, antimicrobials, and flavorings, among others, from the environment. Microencapsulation offers advantages such as facilitating handling and control of the release and solubilization of active substances, thus offering a great area for food science and processing development. For instance, the development of functional food products, fat reduction, sensory improvement, preservation, and other areas may involve the use of microcapsules in various food matrices such as meat products, dairy products, cereals, and fruits, as well as in their derivatives, with good results. The versatility of applications arises from the diversity of techniques and materials used in the process of microencapsulation. The objective of this review is to report the state of the art in the application and evaluation of microcapsules in various food matrices, as a one-microcapsule-core system may offer different results according to the medium in which it is used. The inclusion of microcapsules produces functional products that include probiotics and prebiotics, as well as antioxidants, fatty acids, and minerals. Our main finding was that the microencapsulation of polyphenolic extracts, bacteriocins, and other natural antimicrobials from various sources that inhibit microbial growth could be used for food preservation. Finally, in terms of sensory aspects, microcapsules that mimic fat can function as fat replacers, reducing the textural changes in the product as well as ensuring flavor stability.

New Techniques in Structural Tailoring of Starch Functionality

Inherent characteristics of native starches such as water insolubility, retrogradation and syneresis, and instability in harsh processing conditions (e.g., high temperature and shearing, low pH) limit their industrial applications. As starch properties mainly depend on starch composition and structure, structural tailoring of starch has been important for overcoming functional limitations and expanding starch applications in different fields. In this review, we first introduce the basics of starch structure, properties, and functionalities and then describe the interactions of starch with lipids, polysaccharides, and phenolics. After reviewing genetic, chemical, and enzymatic modifications of starch, we describe current progress in the areas of porous starch and starch-based nanoparticles. New techniques, such as using the CRISPR-Cas9 technique to tailor starch structures and using an emulsion-assisted approach in forming functional starch nanoparticles, are only feasible when they are established based on fundamental knowledge of starch. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, Volume 13 is March 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Application of starch-based nanoparticles and cyclodextrin for prebiotics delivery and controlled glucose release in the human gut: a review

Starches are a major constituent of staple foods and are the main source of energy in the human diet (55-70%). In the gastrointestinal tract, starches are hydrolyzed into glucose by α-amylase and α-glucosidase, which leads to a postprandial glucose elevation. High levels of blood glucose levels over sustained periods may promote type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and obesity. Increasing consumption of starchy foods with a lower glycemic index may therefore contribute to improved health. In this paper, the preparation and properties of several starch-based nanoparticles (SNPs) and cyclodextrins (CDs) derivatives are reviewed. In particular, we focus on the various mechanisms responsible for the ability of these edible nanomaterials to modulate glucose release and the gut microbiome in the gastrointestinal tract. The probiotic functions are achieved through encapsulation and protection of prebiotics or bioactive components in foods or the human gut. This review therefore provides valuable information that could be used to design functional foods for improving human health and wellbeing.

Citrus Peel Extracts for Industrial-Scale Production of Bio-Based Active Food Packaging

The thermal stability of four different commercial citrus peel extracts was tested and improved by an encapsulation process with β-cyclodextrins in a spray-dryer. All extracts after the encapsulation process maintained a good antioxidant capacity, with an apparent loss in total phenolic compounds of around 20–25%. In addition, all samples showed good antimicrobial activity (MIC 5–0.625 mg/mL) against Staphylococcus aureus, which was maintained after the encapsulation process (MIC 5–1.25 mg/mL). Based on the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity results, the best-encapsulated citrus extract was selected for incorporation into a polylactic acid/polyhydroxy butyrate (PLA/PHB) film. The latter was then produced on an industrial scale by cast extrusion and was found to be suitable for food contact as it showed overall migration values in different food simulants lower than the legislative limit of 10 mg of non-volatile substances per 1 dm² of surface area. The UHPLC-HRMS analysis, performed to evaluate the migration of the active compounds, revealed about 13.41% release in food simulant A and 11.02% in food simulant B. Antimicrobial analysis conducted directly on the film showed a growth inhibition activity towards Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus equal to 30 and 60%, respectively.

Triggered and controlled release of active gaseous/volatile compounds for active packaging applications of agri-food products: A review

Gaseous and volatile active compounds are versatile to enhance safety and preserve quality of agri-food products during storage and distribution. However, the use of these compounds is limited by their high vapor pressure and/or chemical instability, especially in active packaging (AP) applications. Various approaches for stabilizing and controlling the release of active gaseous/volatile compounds have been developed, including encapsulation (e.g., into supramolecular matrices, polymer-based films, electrospun nonwovens) and triggered release systems involving precursor technology, thereby allowing their safe and effective use in AP applications. In this review, encapsulation technologies of gases (e.g., CO₂ , ClO₂ , SO₂ , ethylene, 1-methylcyclopropene) and volatiles (e.g., ethanol, ethyl formate, essential oils and their constituents) into different solid matrices, polymeric films, and electrospun nonwovens are reviewed, especially with regard to encapsulation mechanisms and controlled release properties. Recent developments on utilizing precursor compounds of bioactive gases/volatiles to enhance their storage stability and better control their release profiles are discussed. The potential applications of these controlled release systems in AP of agri-food products are presented as well.

Effects of apple polyphenols and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin inclusion complexes on the oxidation of myofibrillar proteins and microstructures in lamb during frozen storage

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of inclusion complexes (ICs) on the oxidative stability of myofibrillar proteins (MPs) and microstructures in lamb during frozen storage. The inclusion process between apple polyphenols (APs) and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) was verified using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and the antioxidant activity of APs. Results showed that the sensitivity of MPs to oxidation improved after 40 weeks. The ICs (0.2-1.6 mg/mL) significantly reduced the carbonyl content, particle size aggregation, protein degradation, fluorescence quenching effect, and decreased the α-helix contents loss of MPs. Additionally, the changes in protein oxidation showed a correlation with the microstructure of muscles, and the addition of 1.6 mg/mL IC remarkably improved the structure of muscle tissues while that of 3.2 mg/mL IC was detrimental to the structural properties. Overall, the exertion of antioxidant activity significantly influenced the cryoprotective effect of ICs on frozen lamb meat.

A Systematic Review on Nanoencapsulation Natural Antimicrobials in Foods: In Vitro versus In Situ Evaluation, Mechanisms of Action and Implications on Physical-Chemical Quality

Natural antimicrobials (NA) have stood out in the last decade due to the growing demand for reducing chemical preservatives in food. Once solubility, stability, and changes in sensory attributes could limit their applications in foods, several studies were published suggesting micro-/nanoencapsulation to overcome such challenges. Thus, for our systematic review the Science Direct, Web of Science, Scopus, and Pub Med databases were chosen to recover papers published from 2010 to 2020. After reviewing all titles/abstracts and keywords for the full-text papers, key data were extracted and synthesized. The systematic review proposed to compare the antimicrobial efficacy between nanoencapsulated NA (nNA) and its free form in vitro and in situ studies, since although in vitro studies are often used in studies, they present characteristics and properties that are different from those found in foods; providing a comprehensive understanding of primary mechanisms of action of the nNA in foods; and analyzing the effects on quality parameters of foods. Essential oils and nanoemulsions (10.9-100 nm) have received significant attention and showed higher antimicrobial efficacy without sensory impairments compared to free NA. Regarding nNA mechanisms: (i) nanoencapsulation provides a slow-prolonged release to promote antimicrobial action over time, and (ii) prevents interactions with food constituents that in turn impair antimicrobial action. Besides in vitro antifungal and antibacterial, nNA also demonstrated antioxidant activity-potential to shelf life extension in food. However, of the studies involving nanoencapsulated natural antimicrobials used in this review, little attention was placed on proximate composition, sensory, and rheological evaluation. We encourage further in situ studies once data differ from in vitro assay, suggesting food matrix greatly influences NA mechanisms.

Native Cyclodextrins and Their Derivatives as Potential Additives for Food Packaging: A Review

Cyclodextrins (CDs) have been used by the pharmaceutical and food industries since the 1970s. Their cavities allow the accommodation of several hydrophobic molecules, leading to the formation of inclusion complexes (ICs) increasing the guest molecules’ stability, allowing their controlled release, enhancing their water solubility and biodisponibility. Due to these, CDs and their ICs have been proposed to be used as potential allies in food packaging, especially in active packaging. In this review, we present the many ways in which the CDs can be applied in food packaging, being incorporated into the polymer matrix or as a constituent of sachets and/or pads aiming for food preservation, as well as the diverse polymer matrices investigated. The different types of CDs, natives and derivatives, and the several types of compounds that can be used as guest molecules are also discussed.

Elimination of oxidative stress and genotoxicity of biosynthesized titanium dioxide nanoparticles in rats via supplementation with whey protein-coated thyme essential oil

The green synthesis of metal nanoparticles is growing dramatically; however, the toxicity of these biosynthesized particles against living organisms is not fully explored. Therefore, this study was designed to synthesize and characterize TiO₂-NPs, encapsulation and characterization thyme essential oil (ETEO), and determination of the bioactive constituents of ETEO using GC-MS and evaluate their protective role against TiO₂-NPs-induced oxidative damage and genotoxicity in rats. Six groups of rats were treated orally for 30 days including the control group, TiO₂-NPs (300 mg/kg b.w)-treated group, ETEO at low (50 mg/kg b.w) or high dose (100 mg/kg b.w)-treated groups, and TiO₂-NPs plus ETEO at the two doses-treated groups. Blood and tissues were collected for different assays. The GC-MS results indicated the presence of 21 compounds belonging to phenols, terpene derivatives, and heterocyclic compounds. The synthesized TiO₂-NPs were 45 nm tetragonal particles with a zeta potential of -27.34 mV; however, ETEO were 119 nm round particles with a zeta potential of -28.33 mV. TiO₂-NPs administration disturbs the liver and kidney markers, lipid profile, cytokines, oxidative stress parameters, the apoptotic and antioxidant hepatic mRNA expression, and induced histological alterations in the liver and kidney tissues. ETEO could improve all these parameters in a dose-dependent manner. It could be concluded that ETEO is a promising candidate for the protection against TiO₂-NPs and can be applied safely in food applications.

A New Approach for β-Cyclodextrin Conjugated Drug Delivery System in Cancer Therapy

Natural cyclodextrins (CDs) are macrocyclic starch molecules discovered a decade ago, in which α-, β-, and γ-CD were commonly used. They originally acted as pharmaceutical excipients to enhance the aqueous solubility and alter the physicochemical properties of drugs that fall under class II and IV categories according to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BPS). The industrial significance of CDs became apparent during the 1970s as scientists started to discover more of CD's potential in chemical modifications and the formation of inclusion complexes. CDs can help in masking and prolonging the half-life of drugs used in cancer. Multiple optimization techniques were discovered to prepare the derivatives of CDs and increase their complexation and drug delivery efficiency. In recent years, due to the advancement of nanotechnology in pharmaceutical sectors, there has been growing interest in CDs. This review mainly focuses on the formulation of cyclodextrin conjugated nanocarriers using graphenes, carbon nanotubes, nanosponges, hydrogels, dendrimers, and polymers to achieve drug-release characteristics specific to cells. These approaches benefit the discovery of novel anti-cancer treatments, solubilization of new drug compounds, and cell specific drug delivery properties. Due to these unique properties of CDs, they are essential in achieving and enhancing tumor-specific cancer treatment.

Surface-Modified Multifunctional Thymol-Loaded Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Topical Acne Treatment

The present work is focused on the development of novel surface-functionalized poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles loaded with thymol (TH-NPs) for topical administration enhancing thymol anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and wound healing activities against acne. TH-NPs were prepared by solvent evaporation method using different surface functionalization strategies and obtaining suitable physicochemical parameters and a good short-term stability at 4 °C. Moreover, TH-NPs skin penetration and antioxidant activity were assessed in ex vivo pig skin models. Skin penetration of TH-NPs followed the follicular route, independently of the surface charge and they were able to enhance antioxidant capacity. Furthermore, antimicrobial activity against Cutibacterium acnes was evaluated in vitro by the suspension test showing improved antibacterial performance. Using human keratinocyte cells (HaCat), cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and wound healing activities were studied. TH-NPs were non-toxic and efficiently internalized inside the cells. In addition, TH-NPs displayed significant anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and wound healing activities, which were highly influenced by TH-NPs surface modifications. Moreover, a synergic activity between TH-NPs and their surface functionalization was demonstrated. To conclude, surface-modified TH-NPs had proven to be suitable to be used as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and wound healing agents, constituting a promising therapy for treating acne infection and associated inflammation.

Association of antioxidant monophenolic compounds with β-cyclodextrin-functionalized cellulose and starch substrates

Polysaccharide substrates loaded with antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds, effectively protected by cyclodextrin moieties, can be a long-lasting solution to confer certain properties to fabrics, paper and other materials. β-Cyclodextrin was attached to α-cellulose, bleached pulp and starch by a two-step esterification with a tetracarboxylic acid. The resulting derivatives were characterized by spectroscopy, thermal degradation analysis and capability of phenolphthalein inclusion. The carriers, containing between 89 and 171 μmol of β-cyclodextrin per gram, were loaded with carvacrol, cuminaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde and hydroxytyrosol. From a stoichiometric addition, the percentage of compound retained ranged from 49% (hydroxytyrosol in pulp-cyclodextrin) to 92% (carvacrol in starch-cyclodextrin). Finally, the release rate to aqueous ethanol was measured over eight days and fitted to kinetic models. From the analysis of the mean dissolution time, it can be concluded that inserting β-cyclodextrin units enhanced the long-term holding of phenolic active compounds in carbohydrate matrices.

Encapsulation of Fruit Flavor Compounds through Interaction with Polysaccharides

Production and storage, the influence of packaging materials and the presence of other ingredients in fruit products can cause changes in flavor compounds or even their loss. Due to these issues, there is a need to encapsulate flavor compounds, and polysaccharides are often used as efficient carriers. In order to achieve effective encapsulation, satisfactory retention and/or controlled release of flavor compounds, it is necessary to understand the nature of the coated and coating materials. Interactions that occur between these compounds are mostly non-covalent interactions (hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals forces); additionally, the formation of the inclusion complexes of flavor compounds and polysaccharides can also occur. This review provides insight into studies about the encapsulation of flavor compounds, as well as basic characteristics of encapsulation such as the choice of coating material, the effect of various factors on the encapsulation efficiency and an explanation of the nature of binding.

Modified cyclodextrin type and dehydration methods exert a significant effect on the antimicrobial activity of encapsulated carvacrol and thymol

BACKGROUND

The antimicrobial activity of essential oils and their constituents has led to increasing interest in using them as natural preservative agents. However, their high sensitivity to light and oxygen, their volatility and their low aqueous solubility are all obstacles to their application in the food, cosmetic or pharmaceutical industries. Encapsulation in cyclodextrins (CDs) is a solution for the application of such essential oils.

RESULTS

The complexation of carvacrol and thymol with hydroxypropyl (HP)-α-, HP-β- and HP-γ-CD, the behavior of the solid complexes prepared by freeze-drying and spray-drying methods and the antibacterial activity of solid complexes were studied. K_c values of HP-α- and HP-γ-CD complexes with carvacrol (118.4 and 365.7 L mol^-1 ) and thymol (112.5 and 239.7 L mol ^-1 ) were far lower than those observed for HP-β-CD complexes with carvacrol (2268.2 L mol ^-1 ) and thymol (881.6 L mol ^-1 ). The lower stability of HP-α- and HP-γ-CD complexes increased the release of compounds, thereby affecting the antimicrobial activity of carvacrol and thymol to a lesser extent than complexation with HP-β-CD, normally used in the encapsulation of carvacrol and thymol. HP-β-CD encapsulation of carvacrol and thymol markedly reduced their antimicrobial activity. The freeze-drying method barely affected the antimicrobial activity of carvacrol and thymol after encapsulation, while spray drying could be considered for the production of solid complexes in combination with the appropriate CD.

CONCLUSIONS

It was thus demonstrated that HP-α- and HP-γ-CD are very suitable alternatives for the encapsulation of carvacrol and thymol with the purpose of preserving their bacteriostatic and bactericidal activities. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Starch-based materials encapsulating food ingredients: Recent advances in fabrication methods and applications

Encapsulation systems have gained significant interest in designing innovative foods, as they allow for the protection and delivery of food ingredients that have health benefits but are unstable during processing, storage and in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Starch is widely available, cheap, biodegradable, edible, and easy to be modified, thus highly suitable for the development of encapsulants. Much efforts have been made to fabricate various types of porous starch and starch particles using different techniques (e.g. enzymatic hydrolysis, aggregation, emulsification, electrohydrodynamic process, supercritical fluid process, and post-processing drying). Such starch-based systems can load, protect, and deliver various food ingredients (e.g. fatty acids, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, flavors, essential oils, irons, vitamins, probiotics, bacteriocins, co-enzymes, and caffeine), exhibiting great potentials in developing foods with tailored flavor, nutrition, sensory properties, and shelf-life. This review surveys recent advances in different aspects of starch-based encapsulation systems including their forms, manufacturing techniques, and applications in foods.

Cyclodextrins as carriers for volatile aroma compounds: A review

Cyclodextrins (CDs) are edible and biocompatible natural cyclic compounds that can encapsulate essential oils, flavours, volatile aroma compounds, and other substances. Complexation with CD-based materials improves the solubility and stability of volatile compounds and protects the bioactivity of the core materials. Therefore, the development of CD/volatile compound nanosystems is a key research area in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. This review briefly introduces the main types of natural CD; preparation methods of CD-based materials as carriers for aromatic substances or essential oils; characterisation methods used to calculate the interaction between CDs and volatile aroma compounds; molecular docking and simulation methods; and the application of CD-based nanosystems in different industries. The review aims to provide guidance for relevant practitioners in selecting appropriate CD materials and characterisation methods.

Nasal biocompatible powder of Geraniol oil complexed with cyclodextrins for neurodegenerative diseases: physicochemical characterization and in vivo evidences of nose to brain delivery

Recently, many studies have shown that plant metabolites, such as geraniol (GER), may exert anti-inflammatory effects in neurodegenerative diseases and, in particular, Parkinson's disease (PD) models. Unfortunately, delivering GER to the CNS via nose-to-brain is not feasible due to its irritant effects on the mucosae. Therefore, in the present study β-cyclodextrin (βCD) and its hydrophilic derivative hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) were selected as potential carriers for GER nose-to-brain delivery. Inclusion complexes were formulated and the biocompatibility with nasal mucosae and drug bioavailability into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were studied in rats. It has been demonstrated by DTA, FT-IR and NMR analyses that both the CDs were able to form 1:1 GER-CD complexes, arising long-term stable powders after the freeze-drying process. GER-HPβCD-5 and GER-βCD-2 complexes exhibited comparable results, except for morphology and solubility, as demonstrated by SEM analysis and phase solubility study, respectively. Even though both complexes were able to directly and safely deliver GER to CNS, GER-βCD-2 displayed higher ability in releasing GER in the CSF. In conclusion, βCD complexes can be considered a very promising tool in delivering GER into the CNS via nose-to-brain route, preventing GER release into the bloodstream and ensuring the integrity of the nasal mucosa.

Optimization and Validation of HS-GC/MS Method for the Controlled Release Study of Microencapsulated Specific Bioattractants for Target-Plaguicide Production

Insect plagues are a problem often hard to solve due to the harmful effects caused by the pesticides used to combat them. Consequently, the pesticide market is increasingly trying to develop new technologies to prevent the unwanted effects that common plague treatments usually bring with them. In this work, four specific bioattractants of Musca domestica, extracted from fungi (β-ocimene, phenol, p-cresol, and indole) were microencapsulated with β-cyclodextrin in order to produce an economically and environmentally sustainable bait containing biocides in the near future. Cyclodextrins will retain these volatile compounds until their use by the consumer when the product comes into contact with water. Then, the bioattractants will be released in the medium in a controlled manner. An analytical methodology based on headspace extraction coupled to gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (HS-GC/MS) has been developed and validated following Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and European Commission Directorate General for Health and Food Safety guidelines for the bioattractants controlled release study from the microencapsulated product. The analytical method has been shown to be accurate and precise and has the sensitivity required for controlled release studies of the four bioattractants analyzed. The release of the bioattractants from microencapsulated products achieved the “plateau” after 3 h in all cases.

Inclusion Complexes of Concentrated Orange Oils and β-Cyclodextrin: Physicochemical and Biological Characterizations

Concentrated orange oils (5x, 10x, 20x) are ingredients used in different industries as components of flavors and aromas due to their great organoleptic qualities. This research focuses on the search for alternative uses for their application through encapsulation in inclusion complexes with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD). Inclusion complexes of concentrated orange oils (COEO) and β-CD were developed by the co-precipitated method in ratios of 4:96, 12:88, and 16:84 (w/w, COEO: β-CD). The best powder recovery was in the ratio 16:84 for the three oils, with values between 82% and 84.8%. The 20x oil in relation 12:88 showed the highest entrapment efficiency (89.5%) with 102.3 mg/g of β-CD. The FT-IR analysis may suggest an interaction between the oil and the β-CD. The best antioxidant activity was observed in the ratio 12:88 for the three oils. The antifungal activity was determined for all the inclusion complexes, and the 10x fraction showed the highest inhibition at a concentration of 10 mg/mL in ratios 12:88 and 16:84. Antibacterial activity was determined by the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and was found at a concentration of 1.25 mg/mL in ratios 12:88 and 16:84 for 5x and 20x oils.

Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antimycotoxigenic, and Antioxidant Activities of Essential Oils: An Updated Review

The interest in using natural antimicrobials instead of chemical preservatives in food products has been increasing in recent years. In regard to this, essential oils-natural and liquid secondary plant metabolites-are gaining importance for their use in the protection of foods, since they are accepted as safe and healthy. Although research studies indicate that the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of essential oils (EOs) are more common compared to other biological activities, specific concerns have led scientists to investigate the areas that are still in need of research. To the best of our knowledge, there is no review paper in which antifungal and especially antimycotoxigenic effects are compiled. Further, the low stability of essential oils under environmental conditions such as temperature and light has forced scientists to develop and use recent approaches such as encapsulation, coating, use in edible films, etc. This review provides an overview of the current literature on essential oils mainly on antifungal and antimycotoxigenic but also their antibacterial and antioxidant activities. Additionally, the recent applications of EOs including encapsulation, edible coatings, and active packaging are outlined.

Ultrasonication-Assisted Synthesis of a d-Glucosamine-Based β-CD Inclusion Complex and Its Application as an Aqueous Heterogeneous Organocatalytic System

For the first time, an inclusion complex has been crafted between a carbohydrate-based molecule and a β-cyclodextrin (CD) hydrophobic cavity for asymmetric catalytic applications. This novel d-glucosamine-based inclusion compound has been synthesized in high yields using an innovative and proficient acoustic cavitation technology and well characterized using various techniques, such as infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and other spectroscopic techniques. It was observed that the inclusion of a d-glucosamine derivative into the hydrophobic cavity of β-CD increased its surface area and thermal stability. This catalytic system worked well in water for the direct aldol reaction to afford the products in excellent yields with high diastereo- and enantioselectivities.