Partial substitution of fat with rye bran fibre in Frankfurter sausages – Bridging technological and sensory attributes through inclusion of collagenous protein

An Overview of Ingredients Used for Plant-Based Meat Analogue Production and Their Influence on Structural and Textural Properties of the Final Product

Plant-based meat analogues are food products made from vegetarian or vegan ingredients that are intended to mimic taste, texture and appearance of meat. They are becoming increasingly popular as people look for more sustainable and healthy protein sources. Furthermore, plant-based foods are marketed as foods with a low carbon footprint and represent a contribution of the consumers and the food industry to a cleaner and a climate-change-free Earth. Production processes of plant-based meat analogues often include technologies such as 3D printing, extrusion or shear cell where the ingredients have to be carefully picked because of their influence on structural and textural properties of the final product, and, in consequence, consumer perception and acceptance of the plant-based product. This review paper gives an extensive overview of meat analogue components, which affect the texture and the structure of the final product, discusses the complex interaction of those ingredients and reflects on numerous studies that have been performed in that area, but also emphasizes the need for future research and optimization of the mixture used in plant-based meat analogue production, as well as for optimization of the production process.

Development of meat spread with omega-3 fatty acids derived from flaxseed oil for the elderly: Physicochemical, textural, and rheological properties

This study evaluates the characteristics of n-3-enriched meat spread that is in development for consumption by elderly individuals. Herein, flaxseed oil was used as a source of n-3 fatty acid, and macro- and nano-sized flaxseed oil emulsions (FOE) were prepared for the fabrication of meat spreads. As the level of FOE was increased in the meat spreads, significant increases in the levels of omega-3 fatty acids (α-linolenic acid) were observed. Emulsion stability and cooking loss were also improved in meat spreads formulated with FOE compared with those the control. In particular, the addition of FOE generated softer and less chewy meat, owing to its lower melting point and rheological properties. However, the high content of unsaturated fatty acids in the FOE-containing meat spreads increased their susceptibility to lipid oxidation meat. These findings indicate that FOE, particularly macro-sized FOE, has the potential for use in n-3 fatty acid enriched meat products that are intended for consumption by elderly individuals but need to be evaluated for their impacts on shelf-life and sensory quality.

The development process of plant-based meat alternatives: raw material formulations and processing strategies

With the rapid growth of the world's population, the demand for meat is gradually increasing. The emergence and development of plant-based meat alternatives (PBMs) offer a good alternative to solve the environmental problems and disease problems caused by the over-consumption of meat products. Soybean is now the primary material for the production of PBMs due to its excellent gelation properties, potential from fibrous structure, balanced nutritional value, and relatively low price. Extrusion is the most widely used process for producing PBMs, and it has a remarkable effect on simulating the fibrous structure of real meat products. However, interactions related to phase transitions in protein molecules or fibrous structures during extrusion remain a challenge. Currently, PBMs do not meet people's demand for realistic meat in terms of texture, taste, and flavor. Therefore, the objectives of this review are to explore how to improve fiber structure formation in terms of raw material formulation and processing technology. Factors to improve the taste and texture of PBMs are summarized in terms of optimizing process parameters, changing the composition of raw materials, and enriching taste and flavor. It will provide a theoretical basis for the future development of PBMs.

Rye Flour and Rye Bran: New Perspectives for Use

Rye (Secale cereale L.) is abundantly cultivated in countries like Europe and North America, particularly in regions where soil and climate conditions are unfavorable for the growth of other cereals. Among all the cereals generally consumed by human beings, rye grains are characterized by the presence of the highest content of fiber. They are also a rich source of many phytochemical compounds, which are mainly distributed in the outer parts of the grain. This review focuses on the current knowledge regarding the characteristics of rye bran and wholemeal rye flour, as well as their applications in the production of both food and nonfood products. Previous studies have shown that the physicochemical properties of ground rye products are determined by the type of milling technique used to grind the grains. In addition, the essential biologically active compounds found in rye grains were isolated and characterized. Subsequently, the possibility of incorporating wholemeal rye flour, rye bran, and other compounds extracted from rye bran into different industrial products is discussed.

Natural plant fibers obtained from agricultural residue used as an ingredient in food matrixes or packaging materials: A review

Every year, agrifood activities generate a large amount of plant byproducts, which have a low economical value. However, the valorization of these byproducts can contribute to increasing the intake of dietary fibers and reducing the environmental pollution. This review presents an overview of a wide variety of agricultural wastes applied in the formulation of different food products and sustainable packaging. In general, the incorporation of fibers into bakery, meat, and dairy products was successful, especially at a level of 10% or less. Fibers from a variety of crops improved the consistency, texture, and stability of sauce formulations without affecting sensory quality. In addition, fiber fortification (0.01-6.4%) presented considerable advantages in terms of rheology, texture, melting behavior, and fat replacement of ice cream, but in some cases had a negative impact on color and mouthfeel. In the case of beverages, promising effects on texture, viscosity, stability, and appetite control were obtained by the addition of soluble dietary fibers from grains and fruits with small particle size. Biocomposites used in packaging benefited from reinforcing effects of various plant fiber sources, but the extent of modification depended on the matrix type, fiber pretreatment, and concentration. The information synthesized in this contribution can be used as a tool to screen and select the most promising fiber source, fiber concentration, and pretreatment for specific food applications and sustainable packaging.

Use of Tremella as Fat Substitute for the Enhancement of Physicochemical and Sensory Profiles of Pork Sausage

Pork fat in sausage was replaced by tremella at different proportions during the process, and the physicochemical and sensory profiles of pork sausage were evaluated. Five recipes with the replacement proportion of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% tremella were manufactured, and their proximate compositions, water activities, textures, colors, water holding capacities (WHC), and amino acid compositions were investigated. The results showed that the protein, ash and moisture content, lightness, redness, and WHC of pork sausages were increased (p < 0.05), and textural profile analysis (TPA) and sensory quality of the sausage were improved (p < 0.05). In addition, the content of essential amino acids (lysine and isoleucine) and the non-essential amino acids (proline and tyrosine) of sausages were increased (p < 0.05). The sausage had the best sensory performance when the replacement ratio of tremella was 75%. These results indicated that replacing fat with tremella could be a valid way to obtain nutritional and healthy sausage.

Excellent coating of collagen fiber/chitosan-based materials that is water- and oil-resistant and fluorine-free

Collagen fiber has attracted much attention due to its good biocompatibility and biodegradability. In the present research, we prepared a type of non-fluorine hydrophobic and oil-resistant material using collagen fiber, chitosan, and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) as raw materials. To improve oil/grease resistance, the first layer filled the porous matrix and was made from the cross-linking product of collagen fiber/chitosan and glutaraldehyde. This was followed by a simple coating of PDMS, to increase hydrophobicity and water resistance. Notably, 10 g/m² of cross-linking product and 6 g/m² of PDMS had a low pore size as well as a smooth and uniform surface, which made the composites exhibit excellent hydrophobic and oil-resistant properties (water contact angles of 141°), water and oil resistance (kit rating value of 12/12) and mechanical properties. Fluorine-free environment-friendly materials with high water and oil resistance play an important role in promoting the development of high-performance materials for food packaging.

Potential of Pulse Flours as Partial Meat Replacers in Heat-Treated Emulsion-Type Meat Sausages

Reformulation approaches in the meat industry are required to promote nutritional improvement, health functionality, and reduce environmental impact. A relevant approach among these is to reduce the amount of meat in meat products. Reduced-meat products should maintain or improve the sensory characteristics and nutritive value compared to conventional meat products. Among meat products, heat-treated emulsion-meat sausages are widely consumed and especially suitable for reformulation approaches. Due to its high protein content, with high functionally and biological value, pulse flour has a high potential to be used as meat replacer. Most studies regarding the replacement of meat with pulses have been made on fresh meat preparations where amounts of up to 15% of pulse flour did not negatively affect sensory quality while increased yield and firmness. However, studies using pulse flour in emulsion-type sausages are scarce. Further research is warranted to optimize the reformulation of these meat products using flour pulses. The topics to be addressed are the following: effects of pulse type, pulse pretreatments, such as soaking or germination, pulse flour treatments before incorporation into the meat mix, combination of pulses with other proper ingredients, and heat treatment intensity on the pulse antinutrient inactivation and the technological and edible quality traits of the pulse-containing sausages.

Wheat bran, as the resource of dietary fiber: a review

Wheat bran is a major by-product of white flour milling and had been produced in large quantities around the world; it is rich in dietary fiber and had already been used in many products such as whole grain baking or high dietary fiber addition. It has been confirmed that a sufficient intake of dietary fiber in wheat bran with appropriate physiological functions is beneficial to human health. Wheat bran had been considered as the addition with a large potential for improving the nutritional condition of the human body based on the dietary fiber supplement. The present review summarized the available information on wheat bran related to its dietary fiber functions, which may be helpful for further development of wheat bran as dietary fiber resource.

Effect of Eggplant Powder on the Physicochemical and Sensory Characteristics of Reduced-Fat Pork Sausages

In this study, we investigated the effects of soybean oil, water, and 1, 2, and 3% eggplant powder (EP) as substitutes for pork back fat (a decrease from 30% to 15%) on the proximate composition, water- and fat-binding properties, colour, water distribution, texture, and sensory properties of pork sausages. The replacement of fat with soybean oil in sausages decreased the fat and cholesterol proportions and increased the moisture content, but the water- and fat-binding properties, texture properties, and sensory properties became worse. By adding EP, sausages displayed remarkably better water- and fat-binding properties, texture properties, and sensory properties. Moreover, EP addition significantly accelerated T₂ relaxation time, increased the immobilised water content, and decreased the free water content of sausages. Sausages with 2% EP had the highest flavour, mouthfeel, and overall acceptability. This work provides theoretical and data support for the preparation of sausages with EP rich in unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) and dietary fibre.

Functionality of Ingredients and Additives in Plant-Based Meat Analogues

Meat analogue research and development focuses on the production of sustainable products that recreate conventional meat in its physical sensations (texture, appearance, taste, etc.) and nutritional aspects. Minced products, like burger patties and nuggets, muscle-type products, like chicken or steak-like cuts, and emulsion products, like Frankfurter and Mortadella type sausages, are the major categories of meat analogues. In this review, we discuss key ingredients for the production of these novel products, with special focus on protein sources, and underline the importance of ingredient functionality. Our observation is that structuring processes are optimized based on ingredients that were not originally designed for meat analogues applications. Therefore, mixing and blending different plant materials to obtain superior functionality is for now the common practice. We observed though that an alternative approach towards the use of ingredients such as flours, is gaining more interest. The emphasis, in this case, is on functionality towards use in meat analogues, rather than classical functionality such as purity and solubility. Another trend is the exploration of novel protein sources such as seaweed, algae and proteins produced via fermentation (cellular agriculture).

Potential of a Sunflower Seed By-Product as Animal Fat Replacer in Healthier Frankfurters

Upcycled defatted sunflower seed flour (SUN), a by-product obtained from sunflower oil extraction, was used as an animal fat replacer to develop healthier frankfurters. For that end, animal fat was replaced (~50%) with water and 2% or 4% of SUN. Nutritional composition, technological, structural and sensorial properties were evaluated. SUN incorporation led to a significant increase in protein, minerals (magnesium, potassium, copper and manganese) and a decrease in fat content (~37% less than control with all animal fat). The incorporation of SUN in frankfurters promoted the presence of phenolic compounds. Increasing SUN addition lead to an increasingly (p < 0.05) darker frankfurter colour. Samples with SUN at 4% were firmer than the control according to TPA and sensory analysis results and showed the highest lipid disorder attributed to more lipid interactions in the meat matrix. SUN addition as an animal fat replacer in frankfurters is a feasible strategy to valorise sunflower oil by-products and obtain healthier frankfurters.

Reducing phosphate in emulsified meat products by adding chia (Salvia hispanica L.) mucilage in powder or gel format: A clean label technological strategy

This study evaluated the functional properties of chia mucilage powder (MCP) and gel (MCG) as a phosphate replacers in low-fat Bologna sausages. Four treatments were produced without phosphates (F1-2% MCP; F2-2% MCG; F3-4% MCP; F4-4% MCG) and two with 0.25% phosphate (F5-2% MCG and F6-4% MCG) besides control (20%-fat-0.5% phosphate). Samples containing mucilage were less firm and less chewy on day 0, except F3. Treatments containing 2% MCG were judged acceptable and provided better emulsion stability than those with MCP. Adding 4% MCP or MCG resulted in Bolognas with lower relaxation times and more restricted mobility and lowest sensorial acceptance characterized by the terms light brown and dark pink color (F4). The microscopy images exhibited less cohesive structure in treatments with 4% of MCG, suggesting the formation of a weaker bound protein network. Chia mucilage gel at 2%, due to its functional properties, has proven to be a feasible strategy to substitute 50% phosphate in low-fat Bologna sausages.