The use of red lentil flour in bakery products: How do particle size and substitution level affect rheological properties of wheat bread dough?

Influence of Thermal Treatment and Granulometry on Physicochemical, Techno-Functional and Nutritional Properties of Lentil Flours

Legume flours are an increasingly popular food ingredient. Thermal treatments applied prior to milling legumes and granulometry can modify flour properties, altering sensory, digestibility and functional attributes. Raw and treated (soaked and cooked) lentil flours of different granulometry were produced. The applied treatment resulted in an increase in fiber content (25.4 vs. 27.6% for raw and treated lentil flour, respectively) and water absorption capacity. It also led to a decrease in ash content (3.3 vs. 1.8% for raw and treated, respectively) and a darker flour. Treated lentil flour was mainly composed of fractions of high granulometry, which could be beneficial for products where a lower glycemic index is sought, as they demonstrated higher fiber and lower carbohydrate content than the finer fractions. Treated flour may be used as an ingredient in the development of raw products, including beverages and desserts, due to its reduced anti-nutritional compounds' content and enhanced organoleptic aspects. The obtained results allow an in-depth characterization of raw and treated lentils flour with different particle sizes to consider a formal and complete standardization of these flours and for understanding their utility and specific food applications.

Gluten-free lentil cakes with optimal technological and nutritional characteristics

BACKGROUND

The celiac population usually struggle finding nutritive gluten-free (GF) baked goods. GF foods can be improved using legume flours. Eleven GF cake formulations were elaborated according to different percentages of lentil flour (LF), corn flour (CF) and rice flour (RF) using a simplex lattice design. Water holding capacity and particle size of flours were evaluated. Moisture, aw, pH, specific volume, texture profile, relaxation, color and alveolar characteristics were determined for crumbs of all formulations. An optimization process was used to enhance the technological and nutritional attributes, selecting the three best formulations containing LF: 46% LF + 54% RF (CLF+RF); 49% LF + 51% CF (CLF+CF); and 100% LF (CLF), evaluated in their proximal composition and sensory characteristics. Linear and quadratic models for predicting the behavior of GF lentil cakes were obtained.

RESULTS

LF and CF could favor water incorporation and show more resistance to enzymatic digestion than RF. Formulations with LF showed an improvement in specific volume and alveolar parameters, while use of RF led to better cohesiveness, elasticity and resilience but with a deterioration in chewiness and firmness. CLF can be labeled as high in protein and fiber and presented the lowest amounts of lipids, carbohydrates and energy content. Consumer preference leaned towards CLF+RF.

CONCLUSION

It was possible to elaborate GF cakes using LF, obtaining nutritive products that can be offered to people intolerant to gluten ingestion. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Technological and Nutritional Aspects of Bread Production: An Overview of Current Status and Future Challenges

Bakery products, especially bread, exist in many homes worldwide. One of the main reasons for its high consumption is that the main raw material is wheat, a cereal that can adapt to a wide variety of soils and climates. However, the nutritional quality of this raw material decreases during its industrial processing, decreasing the value of fibers, proteins, and minerals. Therefore, bread has become a product of high interest to increase its nutritional value. Due to the high consumption of bread, this paper provides a general description of the physicochemical and rheological changes of the dough, as well as the sensory properties of bread by incorporating alternative flours such as beans, lentils, and soy (among others). The reviewed data show that alternative flours can improve fiber, macro, and micronutrient content. The high fiber content reduces the quality of the texture of the products. However, new processing steps or cooking protocols, namely flour proportions, temperature, cooking, and fermentation time, can allow adjusting production variables and optimization to potentially overcome the decrease in sensory quality and preserve consumer acceptance.

Alternative flours from pulp melons (Cucumis melo L.): Seasonality influence on physical, chemical, technological parameters, and utilization in bakery product

Fresh vegetables have high water content and low acidity, so drying can extend shelf life, allowing the obtaining of alternative flours for the development of new products. The study aimed to investigate the influence of the melon harvest and off-season on the chemical composition of melon (Cantaloupe, Charentais e Honey Dew) flours and the potential application in products. The flours were evaluated for granulometry, morphology, centesimal composition, lipid and mineral content, total phenolic compound (TPC), antioxidant activity, and technological properties. Cakes containing melon flour were produced to replace wheat flour (0, 25, and 50 %) and evaluated for proximate composition, microbiology, and sensory parameters. Flours were classified as fine-grained (MESH >16), except Charentais off-season (medium - MESH 8-16, and fine-grained - MESH >16), and all presented a rough surface and minimal cell wall ruptures. The harvest homogeneously influenced the humidity, as all the off-season flours showed higher levels [17-22 %] (p < 0.05) due to weather conditions. For TPC, Cantaloupe melon flours from the harvest (CFH) [208 mg/100 g] and off-season [877 mg/100 g] stood out (p < 0.05), and the latter showed greater antioxidant potential [328 μmol TE/g]. Palmitic, linoleic, and linolenic acid stood out in all flours, and potassium for minerals (63-78 %) in the harvest and off-season. The harvest and off-season specifically influenced the flour of each variety in swelling power, water solubility, oil absorption, and emulsifying capacity. For cakes with CFH, no thermotolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli were detected, and the mesophilic count was <1.0 CFU/g. The ash, protein, lipid, and fiber contents increased proportionally to melon flour addition (p < 0.05). Sensory acceptance was high for cakes containing 25 and 50 % of CFH [82.78 % and 82.53 %], and most consumers would likely buy the products (4.04 and 3.99) (p < 0.05). The study contributed to knowledge about the seasonality effect and demonstrated the potential use of melon flour in developing new products.

Effects of germination time on the structure, functionality, flavour attributes, and in vitro digestibility of green Altamura lentils (Lens culinaris Medik.) flour

There has been an increase in the use of adoptable bioprocessing methods for the development of high-quality leguminous ingredients. The potential use of germinated green Altamura lentils as a food ingredient is closely related to the resulting properties. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of three germination times - 0 (C), 24 (G) and 48 (H) hours - on the physicochemical, microstructural, flavour, functional, and nutritional features of lentil flour samples (CF, GF and HF). Lentil flour samples were obtained by grinding both whole green seeds (C) and germinated seeds (G and H), and then sifting them to obtain a particle size < 300 μm. The germinated samples - GF (24 h) and HF (48 h) - exhibited differences (P < 0.05) in the physicochemical and bioactive properties of CF (control). Similarly, compared with those in the control sample, the total starch, amylose and total phenolic contents in the GF and HF samples decreased, while the protein content increased (p < 0.05). A decrease in the presence of intact starch granules was observed via SEM in the germinated samples. The germination time had a significant (P < 0.05) effect on the colour indices, L*, a*, and b* of the samples. Flavour attributes were significantly influenced by the germination time. Overall, a total of 14 (CF) and 17 (GF and HF) aromatic compounds were identified. The technological characteristics of the CF, GF and HF dough samples were studied using a Brabender farinograph. Germination time affects the flour properties, leading to a significant decrease in farinographic parameters such as water absorption (WA), dough development time (DT), and dough stability (DS) and an increase in the degree of dough weakening (DOS). Differential scanning calorimetry was employed to examine the gelatinization transition of the samples. Germination strongly influenced all the thermal properties of the samples. It also had a significant impact on the in vitro starch digestibility, starch fraction and glycaemic index (eGI) of the samples. In particular, the eGI of germinated lentils was lower than that of the CF. In conclusion, the germination time could be a key factor modulating some crucial lentil flour properties.

Effect of sorghum pre-processing (roasting and germination) on the replacement level and quality of sorghum-wheat bread: bread characteristics, digestibility, consumer acceptability and microbiological analysis

Abstract

The present study was focused on the replacement of refined wheat flour (RWF) by control (CS) and processed sorghum flour [germinated (GS) and roasted (RS)] on the properties of flour/batter/dough (particle size, XRD, pasting, dynamic rheology, farinograph) and bread (physical, textural, digestibility, microbiological and sensory). Prominent variations adhered with sorghum processing, but decreasing patterns occurred for flour-water absorption, dough stability times, storage modulus, peak/final/breakdown viscosities, bread-moisture content, specific volume, porosity, and lightness. Flour's pasting temperature, dough development time, breadbulk density, hardness, gumminess, and bitterness increased. Composite flours mainly had weak nature compared to RWF. The baking loss was lower for 10-30% CS and GS incorporation than RS. Composite bread had higher in-vitro protein and starch digestibility (CS > GS > RS) than RWF. Three days storage life with acceptable quality scores was obtained for bread with CS and GS up to 20% and RS up to 30% incorporation.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05810-3.

Investigation of antioxidant and sensory properties and in vitro bioaccessibility of low-fat functional cookies substituted with wheat germ flour and coffee silverskin

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to produce new functional cookies with high nutritional properties and low calorie content. It investigated the effects of incorporating wheat germ flour (WGF) at levels of 10-30% as a substitute for whole wheat flour (WWF), along with coffee silver skin (CSS) in the same proportions, serving as natural functional additives to substitute for fat in cookie formulations.

RESULTS

The total phenol content of the cookies with added WGF-CSS ranged from 1813.72 to 1838.45 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per kilogram of dry weight (mg GAE kg-1 ), whereas the total phenolic bioaccessibility values ranged between 53.39 and 56.84%. Of the three methods used to determine antioxidant capacity (AC), the cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) method gave higher bioaccessibility values (44.55-51.19%) than the 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical cation and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhidrazyl (DPPH) scavenging methods. The contribution of WGF-CSS supplemented cookies to the recommended dietary allowances (RDA) (%) of K, P, Mg, and Ca increased depending on the number of cookies consumed and the WGF and CSS ratio. The general acceptability scores of the cookies varied between 5.66 and -7.08, and the 10% WGF cookie (F2) (6.48) sample received the score that was closest to that of the control. Moderately strong positive relationships (r > 0.90, P < 0.05) were detected between the physicochemical and sensory characteristics of the cookies.

CONCLUSION

As a result, WGF and CSS food additives with high nutritional properties can be recommended as potential enriching ingredients and fat substitutes in the development of new products in the functional food industry. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Pretreated Green Pea Flour as Wheat Flour Substitutes in Composite Bread Making

The present study aimed to assess the impact of substituting wheat flour with three different pretreated green pea flour at different addition levels (10-50%) on fresh bread quality during a 7-day storage period. Dough and bread enriched with conventionally milled (C), pre-cooked (P), and soaked under-pressure-steamed (N) green pea flour were evaluated for their rheological, nutritional, and technological features. Compared to wheat flour, legumes had lower viscosity but higher water absorption, development time, and lower retrogradation. Bread made with C10 and P10 showed similar specific volume, cohesiveness, and firmness to the control, whereas addition levels beyond 10% decreased specific volume and increased firmness. During storage, incorporating legume flour (10%) delayed staling. Composite bread increased proteins and fiber. C30 had the lowest rate of starch digestibility, while pre-heated flour increased starch digestibility. In conclusion, P and N can be considered valuable ingredients for making soft and stable bread.

Applications of imaging systems for the assessment of quality characteristics of bread and other baked goods: A review

One of the most widely researched topics in the food industry is bread quality analysis. Different techniques have been developed to assess the quality characteristics of bakery products. However, in the last few decades, the advancement in sensor and computational technologies has increased the use of computer vision to analyze food quality (e.g., bakery products). Despite a large number of publications on the application of imaging methods in the bakery industry, comprehensive reviews detailing the use of conventional analytical techniques and imaging methods for the quality analysis of baked goods are limited. Therefore, this review aims to critically analyze the conventional methods and explore the potential of imaging techniques for the quality assessment of baked products. This review provides an in-depth assessment of the different conventional techniques used for the quality analysis of baked goods which include methods to record the physical characteristics of bread and analyze its quality, sensory-based methods, nutritional-based methods, and the use of dough rheological data for end-product quality prediction. Furthermore, an overview of the image processing stages is presented herein. We also discuss, comprehensively, the applications of imaging techniques for assessing the quality of bread and other baked goods. These applications include studying and predicting baked goods' quality characteristics (color, texture, size, and shape) and classifying them based on these features. The limitations of both conventional techniques (e.g., destructive, laborious, error-prone, and expensive) and imaging methods (e.g., illumination, humidity, and noise) and the future direction of the use of imaging methods for quality analysis of bakery products are discussed.

Impact of Air-Drying Temperature on Antioxidant Properties and ACE-Inhibiting Activity of Fungal Fermented Lentil Flour

Solid-state fermentation (SSF) with Pleurotus ostreatus enhances the nutritional value of legumes. However, drying can cause significant changes in physical and nutritional properties of the final products. Thus, this work studies the impact of air-drying temperature (50, 60, and 70 °C) on relevant properties (antioxidant properties, ACE-inhibitory capacity, phytic acid, colour, and particle size) of two fermented lentils flour (Pardina and Castellana) using freeze-drying as a reference method. Castellana variety is a better substrate for Pleurotus, generating four times more biomass. In addition, an almost total reduction of phytic acid from 7.3 to 0.9 mg/g db is achieved in this variety. Air-drying significantly decreased the particle size and the final colour with ΔE > 20; nonetheless, the temperature does not play a crucial role. SSF decreased the total phenolic content and the antioxidant capacity regardless of the variety, however, drying at 70 °C increased total phenolic content (186%) in fermented Castellana flour. Comparing drying methods, freeze-drying implied a higher decrease in those parameters, reducing the TPC from 2.4 to 1.6 and from 7.7 to 3.4 mg gallic acid/g db in Pardina and Castellana dried flours. Finally, the flours inhibit the angiotensin I-converting-enzyme, and fermentation and drying increased their potential cardiovascular benefits.

Alteration in dough volume and gluten network of lychee pulp pomace bread base on mixture design dominated by particle size

The reducing flavor of whole grain bread has been constantly affecting the consumption desire of a significant proportion of consumers. The study presents the use of lychee pulp pomace (LPP) powder to replace certain proportion of wheat flour and produce wheat bread with better quality, while having minimal effects on the volume and improving the nutritional quality. Distinct particle sizes (60-400 µm) of LPP powder were obtained by superfine or ordinary grinding. Effect of different additive proportions (7-19%) of LPP powder on bread dough quality were studied by constrained mixture designs. The volume of fermented doughs subsequently decreased after adding LPP powder. However, LPP powders with smaller particle sizes were able to minimize this effect due to its higher water-holding capacity. The analyses of gluten network showed that smaller particle sizes of LPP powder resulted in a decrease in surface hydrophobicity and increase in the elasticity and stability of gluten network. Finally, optimum mixture formula was composed of 16% LPP powder with 60 µm particle size and 15% water. The study illustrated the potential to make high-quality bread with small particle size of LPP powder. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The addition of dietary fiber to wheat flour can adversely affect the dough volume and reduce the dough quality. By reducing the particle size of lychee pulp pomace powder, this adverse effect could be minimized while increasing the content of dietary fiber and bound phenolics in the dough. This provides data for the production of high-quality lychee dough bread.

Formulation of Biscuits Fortified with a Flour Obtained from Bergamot By-Products (Citrus bergamia, Risso)

Bergamot belongs to the Rutaceae family and is a typical fruit grown principally in the province of Reggio Calabria (South Italy). Nowadays, its industrial use is mostly related to the extraction of the essential oil contained in the flavedo but also to a lesser extent the extraction of the juice (from the pulp), which is rich in antioxidants. However, the pressed pulp (known as Pastazzo) is either used for animal feed or is discarded. The aim of this research was to study the effect of bergamot Pastazzo flour in shortbread biscuits. Pastazzo flour partially replaced the 00 wheat flour in different percentages (2.5%, 5%, 10% and 15%). Simultaneously, a sample without the addition of pastazzo flour (control) was analyzed, thus obtaining five biscuit samples. Cooking was done in a ventilated oven at 180 °C. The baking time was different for the control and the enriched samples depending on when the desired color was reached. The control took 12 min, while the enriched samples reached the desired color in 8 min. All samples were subjected to physicochemical and antioxidant characterization, as well as total polyphenols and flavonoids. The use of pastazzo flour resulted in a slight increase in water activity and humidity values. pH values decreased for all the enriched samples compared to the control, but this was more relevant for the samples enriched with 10 and 15% of flour from by-products. Hardness varied from 1823 g (Control) to 2022 and 2818 g (respectively, for 2.5% and 15% bergamot Pastazzo flour in the recipe). Total phenol content varied from 0.14 mg GAE g−1 (Control) to 0.60 and 3.64 mg GAE g−1 (respectively, for 2.5% and 15% bergamot Pastazzo flour in the recipe). The obtained results demonstrated that the use of pastazzo flour had a positive influence on the antioxidant content, with values which increased as more pastazzo flour was added.

Effects of Quinoa Flour on Wheat Dough Quality, Baking Quality, and in vitro Starch Digestibility of the Crispy Biscuits

Quinoa is a pseudo-cereal which has excellent nutritional and functional properties due to its high content of nutrients, such as polyphenols and flavonoids, and therefore quinoa serves as an excellent supplement to make healthy and functional foods. The present study was aimed to evaluate the quality characteristics of wheat doughs and crispy biscuits supplemented with different amount of quinoa flour. The results showed that when more wheat flour was substituted by quinoa flour, proportion of unextractable polymeric protein to the total polymeric protein (UPP%) of the reconstituted doughs decreased and the gluten network structure was destroyed at a certain substitution level. The content of B-type starch and the gelatinization temperature of the reconstituted flours increased. The storage modulus, loss modulus, development time, and stability time of the dough increased as well. Moreover, hardness and toughness of the formulated crispy biscuits significantly decreased. Analyses suggested that starch digestibility was reduced and resistant starch content increased significantly. Taken together, quinoa flour improved dough rheological properties, enhanced the textural properties, and increased resistant starch content in crispy biscuits, thus adding to high nutritional value.

Interaction of B-type starch with gluten skeleton improves wheat dough mixing properties by stabilizing gluten micro-structure

Some recent studies have revealed individual and the combined interactions of gluten and starch affecting dough mixing properties. However, the combined influence of high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS) and starch on dough mixing and rheological properties requires elucidation. Thus four recombinant inbred lines, SS 1, SS 2, ZZ 1 and ZZ 2, were selected based on their HMW-GSs compositions. Compared to ZZ 1 and ZZ 2, both SS 1 and SS 2 carried superior HMW-GS alleles, and exhibited extended dough development and stability time, indicating their significant dough mixing characteristics. The gluten skeleton of the wheat lines SS 2 and ZZ 2 with higher B-type starch proportions exhibited fewer breakages along with the rise of dough temperature during mixing. Higher content of B-type starch strengthens interaction between starch and gluten skeleton at the dough heating stage, suggesting a specific range of B-type starch proportion can improve dough mixing characteristics.

Insights into the Potential of Buckwheat Flour Fractions in Wheat Bread Dough

Buckwheat flour fractions with different particle sizes (PS), comprising various concentrations of valuable nutritional components, represent an opportunity to enhance refined wheat bakery products. The aim of this research was to assess the potential of buckwheat flour (BF) fractions (large, L > 300 μm, medium, 180 μm < M < 300 μm and small, S < 180 μm) to substitute refined wheat flour at 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% in wheat bread dough and to establish the optimal amount for each fraction. The results revealed significant changes during different bread-making stages and on the finished product. A decrease in falling number index, water absorption, starch gelatinization, elastic modulus, and bread hardness with increasing PS was observed. The increase of BF amount led to an increase in dough development time, speed of protein weakening, gel starch stability, alveograph ratio, rheofermentation properties, maximum creep-recovery compliance, and bread hardness. The optimal values for falling number, mixing–heating–cooling dough parameters, dough biaxial extension, rheofermentation, storage and loss moduli, creep-recovery compliance, loaf volume, and bread hardness were obtained depending on PS based on the generation of predictive models. It was established that the best formulations, with respect to dough rheology and bread characteristics, included BF at 9.13% for large, 10.57% for medium, and 10.25% for small PS.

Impact of Thermal Treatment on the Starch-Protein Interplay in Red Lentils: Connecting Molecular Features and Rheological Properties

Thermal treatments are widely applied to gluten-free (GF) flours to change their functionality. Despite the interest in using pulses in GF formulations, the effects of thermal treatment at the molecular level and their relationship with dough rheology have not been fully addressed. Raw and heat-treated red lentils were tested for starch and protein features. Interactions with water were assessed by thermogravimetric analysis and water-holding capacity. Finally, mixing properties were investigated. The thermal treatment of red lentils induced a structural modification of both starch and proteins. In the case of starch, such changes consequently affected the kinetics of gelatinization. Flour treatment increased the temperature required for gelatinization, and led to an increased viscosity during both gelatinization and retrogradation. Regarding proteins, heat treatment promoted the formation of aggregates, mainly stabilized by hydrophobic interactions between (partially) unfolded proteins. Overall, the structural modifications of starch and proteins enhanced the hydration properties of the dough, resulting in increased consistency during mixing.

The Effectiveness of Extruded-Cooked Lentil Flour in Preparing a Gluten-Free Pizza with Improved Nutritional Features and a Good Sensory Quality

Extruded-cooked lentil (ECL) flour was used to fortify (10/100 g dough) gluten-free pizza, which was compared with rice/corn-based pizza (control), and with pizza containing native lentil (NL) flour. Viscoamylograph and Mixolab data evidenced the hydrocolloid properties of ECL flour (initial viscosity = 69.3 BU), which contained pregelatinized starch. The use of ECL flour made it possible to eliminate hydroxymethylcellulose (E464), obtaining a clean label product. Both NL and ECL pizzas showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher contents of proteins (7.4 and 7.3/100 g, respectively) than the control pizza (4.4/100 g) and could be labelled as "source of proteins" according to the Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006. In addition, NL and ECL pizzas were characterized by higher contents of bioactive compounds, including anthocyanins, and by higher in vitro antioxidant activity (1.42 and 1.35 µmol Trolox/g d.m., respectively) than the control pizza (1.07 µmol Trolox/g d.m.). However, NL and ECL pizzas also contained small amounts of undigestible oligosaccharides, typically present in lentils (verbascose = 0.92-0.98 mg/g d.m.; stachyose = 4.04-5.55 mg/g d.m.; and raffinose = 1.98-2.05 mg/g d.m.). No significant differences were observed in the liking level expressed by consumers between ECL and control pizzas.

Rheological Approaches of Wheat Flour Dough Enriched with Germinated Soybean and Lentil

Germination is a convenient technique that could be used to enhance the nutritional profile of legumes. Furthermore, consumers’ increasing demand for diversification of bakery products represents an opportunity to use such germinated flours in wheat-based products. Thus, this study aimed to underline the effects of soybean germinated flour (SGF) and lentil germinated flour (LGF) on the rheological behavior of dough during different processing stages and to optimize the addition level. For this purpose, flour falling number, dough properties during mixing, extension, fermentation, and dynamic rheological characteristics were evaluated. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used for the optimization of SGF and LGF addition levels in wheat flour, optimal and control samples microstructures being also investigated through epifluorescence light microscopy (EFLM). The results revealed that increased SGF and LGF addition levels led to curve configuration ratio, visco-elastic moduli, and maximum gelatinization temperature rises, while the falling number, water absorption, dough extensibility, and baking strength decreased. The interaction between SGF and LGF significantly influenced (p < 0.05) the falling number, dough consistency after 450 s, baking strength, curve configuration ratio, viscous modulus, and maximum gelatinization temperature. The optimal sample was found to contain 5.60% SGF and 3.62% LGF added in wheat flour, with a significantly lower falling number, water absorption, tolerance to kneading, dough consistency, extensibility, and initial gelatinization temperature being observed, while dough tenacity, the maximum height of gaseous production, total CO2 volume production, the volume of the gas retained in the dough at the end of the test, visco-elastic moduli and maximum gelatinization temperatures were higher compared to the control. These results underlined the effects of SGF and LGF on wheat dough rheological properties and could be helpful for novel bakery products development.

Comprehensive Understanding of Roller Milling on the Physicochemical Properties of Red Lentil and Yellow Pea Flours

The development of convenience foods by incorporating nutrient-rich pulses such as peas and lentils will tremendously alter the future of pulse and cereal industries. However, these pulses should be size-reduced before being incorporated into many food products. Therefore, an attempt was made to adapt roller mill settings to produce de-husked yellow pea and red lentil flours. The milling flowsheets unique to yellow peas and red lentils were developed in producing small, medium, and large flours with maximum yield and flour quality. This study also investigated the differences in chemical composition, physical characteristics, and particle size distributions of the resultant six flour fractions. The kernel dimensions and physicochemical properties of the whole yellow pea and red lentils were also studied to develop customized mill settings. Overall, the mill settings had a significant effect on the physical properties of different particle-sized flours. The geometric mean diameters of different particle-sized red lentil flours were 56.05 μm (small), 67.01 μm (medium), and 97.17 μm (large), while for yellow pea flours they were 41.38 μm (small), 60.81 μm (medium), and 98.31 μm (large). The particle size distribution of all the flour types showed a bimodal distribution, except for the small-sized yellow pea flour. For both the pulse types, slightly more than 50% flour was approximately sizing 50 μm, 75 μm, and 100 μm for small, medium, and large settings, respectively. The chemical composition of the flour types remained practically the same for different-sized flours, fulfilling the objective of this current study. The damaged starch values for red lentil and yellow pea flour types increased with a decrease in flour particle size. Based on the Hausner’s ratios, the flowability of large-sized flour of red lentils could be described as passable; however, all the remaining five flour types were indicated as either poor or very poor. The findings of this study assist the millers to adapt yellow pea and red lentil milling technologies with minor modifications to the existing facilities. The study also helps in boosting the production of various baking products using pulse and wheat flour blends to enhance their nutritional quality.

Sprouting Time Affects Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) Functionality and Bread-Baking Performance

Despite being considered a climate-resilient crop, sorghum is still underutilized in food processing because of the limited starch and protein functionality. For this reason, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of sprouting time on sorghum functional properties and the possibility to exploit sprouted sorghum in bread making. In this context, red sorghum was sprouted for 24, 36, 48, 72, and 96 h at 27 °C. Sprouting time did not strongly affect the sorghum composition in terms of total starch, fiber, and protein contents. On the other hand, the developed proteolytic activity had a positive effect on oil-absorption capacity, pasting, and gelation properties. Conversely, the increased α-amylase activity in sprouted samples (≥36 h) altered starch functionality. As regards sorghum-enriched bread, the blends containing 48 h-sprouted sorghum showed high specific volume and low crumb firmness. In addition, enrichment in sprouted sorghum increased both the in vitro protein digestibility and the slowly digestible starch fraction of bread. Overall, this study showed that 48 h-sprouted sorghum enhanced the bread-making performance of wheat-based products.

Effect of Pulse Type and Substitution Level on Dough Rheology and Bread Quality of Whole Wheat-Based Composite Flours

Pulse flours are commonly added to food products to improve the functional properties, nutritional profiles, product quality and health benefits. This study aimed at assessing the effects of the partial replacement (0–25%) of whole wheat flour with diversified whole pulse flours (yellow pea, green pea, red lentil, and chickpea) on dough properties and bread quality. The pulse flours had higher protein contents and ash, but lower moisture content and larger average particle size, compared to whole wheat flour. Increasing the substitution level of pulse flours decreased dough viscosity, stability, development time and bread volume, and accelerated bread retrogradation. The incorporation of 5% yellow pea flour led to a similar bread quality as that with only whole wheat flour. Among all the tested pulse flours, the composite flour containing yellow pea flour or chickpea flour had overall better potential for bread making by providing good dough handling properties and product quality. This study will benefit the development of more nutritious food products by combining cereal and pulse ingredients.

Impact of Roasted Yellow Split Pea Flour on Dough Rheology and Quality of Fortified Wheat Breads

Roasted yellow split pea (YSP) flours were used to substitute wheat flour, at 10–20% (flour basis) in wheat bread formulations. Rheometry showed that roasted YSP flour addition increased elasticity and resistance to deformation and flow of the composite doughs, particularly at 20% substitution; instead, at 10% addition (either raw or roasted YSP flour), there were no effects on dough rheology and bread textural properties. Breads fortified with roasted YSP flour at levels >10% exhibited lower loaf-specific volume and harder crumb compared to control (bread without YSP flour). Moreover, only breads with 20% roasted YSP flour displayed a significantly higher staling extent and rate, compared to control, as assessed by large deformation mechanical testing and calorimetry (starch retrogradation) of crumb preparations. This formulation also showed a large increase in β-sheets and β-turns at the expense of α-helix and random coil conformations in protein secondary structure as assessed by FTIR spectroscopy. Roasting of YSP effectively masked the “beany” and “grass-like” off-flavors of raw YSP flour at 10% substitution. Overall, roasted YSP flour at the 10% level was successfully incorporated into wheat bread formulations without adversely affecting dough rheology, bread texture, and shelf-life, resulting in final products with a pleasant flavor profile.

Effects of Different Amylose Contents of Foxtail Millet Flour Varieties on Textural Properties of Chinese Steamed Bread

In order to improve the nutritional value and quality of steamed bread, and promote the industrial development of the whole-grain food industry, a texture analyzer was used to study the effects of cultivars of whole foxtail millet flour (WFMF) on the texture of Chinese steamed bread (CSB). Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) was also conducted. The addition of different cultivars of WFMF significantly altered the height–diameter ratio, specific volume, hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness of CSB (p < 0.05). Large amounts of foxtail millet flour significantly increased the hardness, gumminess and chewiness of the bread (p < 0.05), and the bread height–diameter ratio, specific volume, cohesiveness and springiness significantly decreased (p < 0.05). We screened sensory evaluation, chewiness, specific volume, and hardness as the signature differences in the quality components according to the variable influence on the projection (VIP) values. OPLS-DA could distinguish the addition levels of different samples.

Sprouting of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench): Effect of Drying Treatment on Protein and Starch Features

The nutritional and physicochemical properties of sorghum proteins and starch make the use of this cereal for food production challenging. Sprouting is a cost-effective technology to improve the nutritional and functional profile of grains. Two drying treatments were used after sorghum sprouting to investigate whether the drying phase could improve the protein and starch functionalities. Results showed that the drying treatment at lower temperature/longer time (40 °C for 12 h) extended the enzymatic activity that started during sprouting compared to the one performed at higher temperature/shorter time (50 °C for 6 h). An increased protein hydrolysis and water- and oil-holding capacity were found in the flour obtained by the former treatment. Higher protein matrix hydrolysis caused high exposure of starch to enzymes, thus increasing its digestibility, while worsening the technological functionality. Overall, modulating drying conditions could represent a further way, in addition to sprouting, to improve sorghum flour’s nutritional profile.