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Jiménez-Ramos R, Brun FG, Vergara JJ, Hernández I, Pérez-Lloréns JL, Egea LG. Nutrient enrichment and herbivory alter carbon balance in temperate seagrass communities. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 206:116784. [PMID: 39083908 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 07/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
Large nutrient levels and herbivory stress, particularly when acting together, drive a variety of responses in seagrass communities that ultimately may weaken their carbon balance. An in situ three-months experiment was carried out in two contrasting seasons to address the effects of two levels of nutrient load and three levels of artificial clipping on Cymodocea nodosa plants. Nutrient enrichment shifted the community from autotrophic to heterotrophic and reduced DOC fluxes in winter, whereas enhanced community carbon metabolism and DOC fluxes in summer. Herbivory stress decreased the net primary production in both seasons, whereas net DOC release increased in winter but decreased in summer. A reduction of seagrass food-web structure was observed under both disturbances evidencing impacts on the seagrass ecosystems services by altering the carbon transfer process and the loss of superficial OC, which may finally weaken the blue carbon storage capacity of these communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Jiménez-Ramos
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEI·MAR), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain.
| | - Fernando G Brun
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEI·MAR), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Juan J Vergara
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEI·MAR), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Ignacio Hernández
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEI·MAR), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - J Lucas Pérez-Lloréns
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEI·MAR), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Luis G Egea
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEI·MAR), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
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Rosic N, Thornber C. Biotechnological Potential of Macroalgae during Seasonal Blooms for Sustainable Production of UV-Absorbing Compounds. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:633. [PMID: 38132954 PMCID: PMC10744652 DOI: 10.3390/md21120633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine macroalgae (seaweeds) are important primary global producers, with a wide distribution in oceans around the world from polar to tropical regions. Most of these species are exposed to variable environmental conditions, such as abiotic (e.g., light irradiance, temperature variations, nutrient availability, salinity levels) and biotic factors (e.g., grazing and pathogen exposure). As a result, macroalgae developed numerous important strategies to increase their adaptability, including synthesizing secondary metabolites, which have promising biotechnological applications, such as UV-absorbing Mycosporine-Like Amino Acid (MAAs). MAAs are small, water-soluble, UV-absorbing compounds that are commonly found in many marine organisms and are characterized by promising antioxidative, anti-inflammatory and photoprotective properties. However, the widespread use of MAAs by humans is often restricted by their limited bioavailability, limited success in heterologous expression systems, and low quantities recovered from the natural environment. In contrast, bloom-forming macroalgal species from all three major macroalgal clades (Chlorophyta, Phaeophyceae, and Rhodophyta) occasionally form algal blooms, resulting in a rapid increase in algal abundance and high biomass production. This review focuses on the bloom-forming species capable of producing pharmacologically important compounds, including MAAs, and the application of proteomics in facilitating macroalgal use in overcoming current environmental and biotechnological challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nedeljka Rosic
- Faculty of Health, Southern Cross University, Gold Coast, QLD 4225, Australia
- Marine Ecology Research Centre, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW 2480, Australia
| | - Carol Thornber
- Department of Natural Resources Science, University of Rhode Island, 120 Flagg Road, Kingston, RI 02881, USA;
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Ricart AM, Honisch B, Fachon E, Hunt CW, Salisbury J, Arnold SN, Price NN. Optimizing marine macrophyte capacity to locally ameliorate ocean acidification under variable light and flow regimes: Insights from an experimental approach. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288548. [PMID: 37819926 PMCID: PMC10566731 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The urgent need to remediate ocean acidification has brought attention to the ability of marine macrophytes (seagrasses and seaweeds) to take up carbon dioxide (CO2) and locally raise seawater pH via primary production. This physiological process may represent a powerful ocean acidification mitigation tool in coastal areas. However, highly variable nearshore environmental conditions pose uncertainty in the extent of the amelioration effect. We developed experiments in aquaria to address two interconnected goals. First, we explored the individual capacities of four species of marine macrophytes (Ulva lactuca, Zostera marina, Fucus vesiculosus and Saccharina latissima) to ameliorate seawater acidity in experimentally elevated pCO2. Second, we used the most responsive species (i.e., S. latissima) to assess the effects of high and low water residence time on the amelioration of seawater acidity in ambient and simulated future scenarios of climate change across a gradient of irradiance. We measured changes in dissolved oxygen, pH, and total alkalinity, and derived resultant changes to dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and calcium carbonate saturation state (Ω). While all species increased productivity under elevated CO2, S. latissima was able to remove DIC and alter pH and Ω more substantially as CO2 increased. Additionally, the amelioration of seawater acidity by S. latissima was optimized under high irradiance and high residence time. However, the influence of water residence time was insignificant under future scenarios. Finally, we applied predictive models as a function of macrophyte biomass, irradiance, and residence time conditions in ambient and future climatic scenarios to allow projections at the ecosystem level. This research contributes to understanding the biological and physical drivers of the coastal CO2 system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurora M. Ricart
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, Maine, United States America
| | - Brittney Honisch
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, Maine, United States America
| | - Evangeline Fachon
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Christopher W. Hunt
- Ocean Process Analysis Laboratory, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH,, United States of America
| | - Joseph Salisbury
- Ocean Process Analysis Laboratory, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH,, United States of America
| | | | - Nichole N. Price
- Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, East Boothbay, Maine, United States America
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Zhang W, He L, Pan J, Zhou Y, Ge R, Li S, Shi Y, Chen X, Chu Y. Response of Juvenile Saccharina japonica to the Combined Stressors of Elevated pCO 2 and Excess Copper. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1140. [PMID: 36903998 PMCID: PMC10005686 DOI: 10.3390/plants12051140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Coastal macroalgae may be subjected to global and local environmental stressors, such as ocean acidification and heavy-metal pollution. We investigated the growth, photosynthetic characteristics, and biochemical compositions of juvenile sporophytes of Saccharina japonica cultivated at two pCO2 levels (400 and 1000 ppmv) and four copper concentrations (natural seawater, control; 0.2 μM, low level; 0.5 μM, medium level; and 1 μM, high level) to better understand how macroalgae respond to ongoing environmental changes. The results showed that the responses of juvenile S. japonica to copper concentrations depended on the pCO2 level. Under the 400 ppmv condition, medium and high copper concentrations significantly decreased the relative growth rate (RGR) and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) but increased the relative electron transfer rate (rETR) and chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll c (Chl c), carotenoid (Car), and soluble carbohydrate contents. At 1000 ppmv, however, none of the parameters had significant differences between the different copper concentrations. Our data suggest that excess copper may inhibit the growth of juvenile sporophytes of S. japonica, but this negative effect could be alleviated by CO2-induced ocean acidification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenze Zhang
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Department of Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences, Kunsan National University, Gunsan 54150, Republic of Korea
| | - Lianghua He
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Jiangqi Pan
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Yuhong Zhou
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Ruxiang Ge
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Sufang Li
- Laboratoire Génie des Procédés et Matériaux (LGPM), CentraleSupélec, Université Paris-Saclay, 91190 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Yunyun Shi
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Xinhua Chen
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Yaoyao Chu
- College of Marine Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology of Fujian Province, Institute of Oceanology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
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Zhang X, Xu D, Han W, Wang Y, Fan X, Loladze I, Gao G, Zhang Y, Tong S, Ye N. Elevated CO 2 affects kelp nutrient quality: A case study of Saccharina japonica from CO 2 -enriched coastal mesocosm systems. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2021; 57:379-391. [PMID: 33150587 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 10/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Kelps provide critical services for coastal food chains and ecosystem, and they are important food source for some segments of human population. Despite their ecological importance, little is known about long-term impacts of elevated CO2 (eCO2 ) on nutrient metabolites in kelps and the underlying regulation mechanisms. In this study, the kelp Saccharina japonica was cultured in CO2 -enriched coastal mesocosm systems for up to 3 months. We found that, although eCO2 significantly increased the growth rate, carbon concentrations, and C/N ratio of S. japonica, and it had no effect on total nitrogen and protein contents at the end of cultivation period. Meanwhile, it decreased the lipid, magnesium, sodium, and calcium content and changed the amino acid and fatty acid composition. Combining the genome-wide transcriptomic and metabolic evidence, we obtained a system-level understanding of metabolic response of S. japonica to eCO2 . The unique ornithine-urea cycle (OUC) and aspartate-argininosuccinate shunt (AAS), coupled with TCA cycle, balanced the carbon and nitrogen metabolism under eCO2 by providing carbon skeleton for amino acid synthesis and reduced power for nitrogen assimilation. This research provides a major advance in the understanding of kelp nutrient metabolic mechanism in the context of global climate change, and such CO2 -induced shifts in nutritional value may induce changes in the structure and stability of marine trophic webs and affect the quality of human nutrition resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Zhang
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
- Function Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266200, China
| | - Dong Xu
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
- Function Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266200, China
| | - Wentao Han
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Yitao Wang
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Xiao Fan
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Irakli Loladze
- Bryan College of Health Sciences, Bryan Medical Center, Lincoln, NE, 68506, USA
| | - Guang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Marine Bioresources and Environment, Huaihai Institute of Technology, Lianyungang, 222005, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Shanying Tong
- School of Life Science, Ludong University, Yantai, 264025, China
| | - Naihao Ye
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China
- Function Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266200, China
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Kinnby A, White JCB, Toth GB, Pavia H. Ocean acidification decreases grazing pressure but alters morphological structure in a dominant coastal seaweed. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0245017. [PMID: 33508019 PMCID: PMC7842949 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocean acidification driven by anthropogenic climate change is causing a global decrease in pH, which is projected to be 0.4 units lower in coastal shallow waters by the year 2100. Previous studies have shown that seaweeds grown under such conditions may alter their growth and photosynthetic capacity. It is not clear how such alterations might impact interactions between seaweed and herbivores, e.g. through changes in feeding rates, nutritional value, or defense levels. Changes in seaweeds are particularly important for coastal food webs, as they are key primary producers and often habitat-forming species. We cultured the habitat-forming brown seaweed Fucus vesiculosus for 30 days in projected future pCO2 (1100 μatm) with genetically identical controls in ambient pCO2 (400 μatm). Thereafter the macroalgae were exposed to grazing by Littorina littorea, acclimated to the relevant pCO2-treatment. We found increased growth (measured as surface area increase), decreased tissue strength in a tensile strength test, and decreased chemical defense (phlorotannins) levels in seaweeds exposed to high pCO2-levels. The herbivores exposed to elevated pCO2-levels showed improved condition index, decreased consumption, but no significant change in feeding preference. Fucoid seaweeds such as F. vesiculosus play important ecological roles in coastal habitats and are often foundation species, with a key role for ecosystem structure and function. The change in surface area and associated decrease in breaking force, as demonstrated by our results, indicate that F. vesiculosus grown under elevated levels of pCO2 may acquire an altered morphology and reduced tissue strength. This, together with increased wave energy in coastal ecosystems due to climate change, could have detrimental effects by reducing both habitat and food availability for herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kinnby
- Tjärnö Marine Laboratory, Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Strömstad, Sweden
| | - Joel C. B. White
- Tjärnö Marine Laboratory, Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Strömstad, Sweden
| | - Gunilla B. Toth
- Tjärnö Marine Laboratory, Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Strömstad, Sweden
| | - Henrik Pavia
- Tjärnö Marine Laboratory, Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Strömstad, Sweden
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Egea LG, Jiménez-Ramos R, Hernández I, Brun FG. Differential effects of nutrient enrichment on carbon metabolism and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) fluxes in macrophytic benthic communities. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 162:105179. [PMID: 33065520 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nutrient enrichment can alter negatively benthic communities and reduce their ecological services. This study explores in two contrasting seasons (winter and summer), the effects of in situ nutrient enrichment at the community level on carbon metabolism and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) fluxes in two benthic communities dominated by the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa and by the macroalga Caulerpa prolifera. Under nutrient enrichment, C. nodosa increased total community biomass and diversity in summer, while net community production shifted from net autotrophic to net heterotrophic in winter. In contrast, C. prolifera became heterotrophic in summer, while no significant effects were found in winter. Regarding DOC fluxes, nutrient enrichment shifted C. nodosa from net DOC consumer in winter to a strong net DOC producer in summer, while C. prolifera seemed unaffected. Therefore, nutrient enrichment can promote conditional effects (positive, negative or neutral) in coastal areas depending both on macrophyte assemblages and season.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis G Egea
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Cadiz, International Campus of Excellence of the Sea (CEIMAR), 11510, Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain.
| | - Rocío Jiménez-Ramos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Cadiz, International Campus of Excellence of the Sea (CEIMAR), 11510, Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain; Mediterranean Institute for Advanced Studies (UIB-CSIC), C/ Miquel Marquès, 21 07190, Esporles Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Ignacio Hernández
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Cadiz, International Campus of Excellence of the Sea (CEIMAR), 11510, Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain
| | - Fernando G Brun
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Cadiz, International Campus of Excellence of the Sea (CEIMAR), 11510, Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain
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van der Loos LM, Schmid M, Leal PP, McGraw CM, Britton D, Revill AT, Virtue P, Nichols PD, Hurd CL. Responses of macroalgae to CO 2 enrichment cannot be inferred solely from their inorganic carbon uptake strategy. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:125-140. [PMID: 30680101 PMCID: PMC6342131 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased plant biomass is observed in terrestrial systems due to rising levels of atmospheric CO2, but responses of marine macroalgae to CO2 enrichment are unclear. The 200% increase in CO2 by 2100 is predicted to enhance the productivity of fleshy macroalgae that acquire inorganic carbon solely as CO2 (non-carbon dioxide-concentrating mechanism [CCM] species-i.e., species without a carbon dioxide-concentrating mechanism), whereas those that additionally uptake bicarbonate (CCM species) are predicted to respond neutrally or positively depending on their affinity for bicarbonate. Previous studies, however, show that fleshy macroalgae exhibit a broad variety of responses to CO2 enrichment and the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. This physiological study compared the responses of a CCM species (Lomentaria australis) with a non-CCM species (Craspedocarpus ramentaceus) to CO2 enrichment with regards to growth, net photosynthesis, and biochemistry. Contrary to expectations, there was no enrichment effect for the non-CCM species, whereas the CCM species had a twofold greater growth rate, likely driven by a downregulation of the energetically costly CCM(s). This saved energy was invested into new growth rather than storage lipids and fatty acids. In addition, we conducted a comprehensive literature synthesis to examine the extent to which the growth and photosynthetic responses of fleshy macroalgae to elevated CO2 are related to their carbon acquisition strategies. Findings highlight that the responses of macroalgae to CO2 enrichment cannot be inferred solely from their carbon uptake strategy, and targeted physiological experiments on a wider range of species are needed to better predict responses of macroalgae to future oceanic change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luna M. van der Loos
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
- Marine EcologyUniversity of GroningenGroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Matthias Schmid
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
| | - Pablo P. Leal
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP)Puerto MonttChile
| | - Christina M. McGraw
- Department of Chemistry, NIWA/University of Otago Research Centre for OceanographyUniversity of OtagoDunedinNew Zealand
| | - Damon Britton
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
| | | | - Patti Virtue
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
- CSIRO Oceans and AtmosphereHobartTasmaniaAustralia
- Antarctic Climate and EcosystemsCooperative Research CentreHobartTasmaniaAustralia
| | - Peter D. Nichols
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
- CSIRO Oceans and AtmosphereHobartTasmaniaAustralia
| | - Catriona L. Hurd
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
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