Hydrogen peroxide production in marine bathing waters: Implications for fecal indicator bacteria mortality

Evaluating the photochemical reactivity of disinfection byproducts formed during seawater desalination processes

Reverse osmosis (RO) is widely used for seawater desalination but pre-chlorination of intake water produces halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The fate and environmental impacts associated with the discharge of DBP-containing RO brine wastewater are unknown. Therefore, to evaluate if photochemistry plays a role in DBP degradation in seawater, we collected samples at a desalination plant, which were desalted and concentrated using two-inline solid phase extraction (SPE) techniques combining reverse-phase polymeric (PPL) and weak anion exchange (WAX) resins. Both filtered water samples and SPE samples (extracts reconstituted in open ocean seawater) were exposed to simulated sunlight in a custom-built flow-through system. Optical property analysis during irradiation experiments did not provide distinguishing features between intake water and RO reject water (brine). Extractable organic bromine (organoBr) concentrations were low in intake water samples (7.8 μg Br L-1) and did not change significantly due to irradiation. OrganoBr concentrations in laboratory-chlorinated raw water were much higher (135 μg Br L-1) and on average decreased by 42 % after 24 h irradiation. However, while organoBr concentrations were highest in RO reject water (473 μg Br L-1), changes in organoBr concentrations in PPL SPE samples after 24 h irradiation were variable, ranging from a 1-46 % loss. Furthermore, most bromine-containing molecular ions identified by high resolution mass spectrometry that were present in RO reject water before irradiation were also found after both 24 h and 50 h exposures. Although only one RO reject water sample was tested in this study, results highlight that hundreds of yet to be identified brominated DBPs in RO reject water could be resistant to photodegradation or phototransform into existing DBPs in the environment. Future work examining the biolability of DBPs in RO reject water, as well as the interplay between photochemical and biological DBP cycling, is warranted.

Photosensitized Transformation of Hydrogen Peroxide in Dissolved Organic Matter Solutions under Simulated Solar Irradiation

Hydrogen peroxide plays an important role in photochemical processes in aquatic environments. However, whether it can be transformed by photoexcited chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) remains unclear. Therefore, this study examined the photosensitized degradation of H₂O₂ in CDOM-enriched solutions under simulated solar irradiation. Our results suggest that the presence of CDOM enhances the photodegradation rate of H₂O₂ via the photosensitization process and ^·OH is generated stoichiometrically with H₂O₂ attenuation. Experimental results with model photosensitizers indicate that one-electron reducing species of CDOM (CDOM^·-), not triplet CDOM, is the primary reactive species that reduces H₂O₂ to yield ^·OH. By monitoring the variation of CDOM^·-, the reaction rate constant of CDOM^·- with H₂O₂ was estimated to be 1.5-fold greater than that with O₂. Furthermore, a wastewater effluent was exposed to simulated solar irradiation with the addition of H₂O₂, and the results demonstrated that the photodegradation of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) was significantly enhanced by the increased ^·OH level. Overall, the current study provided new insights into the photochemical formation of ^·OH via the one-electron reduction of H₂O₂ by CDOM^·-. The solar irradiation of wastewater with H₂O₂ enhancement could be a useful and economically beneficial advanced oxidation process for TrOC abatement.

Frozen Hydrogen Peroxide and Nitrite Solution: The Acceleration of Benzoic Acid Oxidation via the Decreased pH in Ice

We investigated benzoic acid oxidation via the reaction of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and nitrite (NO₂^-). The oxidation of benzoic acid by reactive nitrous acid (HONO) was negligible, and the reactivity of the H₂O₂/NO₂^- system decreased with a decrease in temperature under aqueous conditions. However, freezing markedly accelerated the chemical reaction. Based on Raman microscope measurements, concentrated species were confirmed in certain regions of the ice. We proposed that the change in nitrite speciation (accordingly, a decrease in the pH below pK_a), derived from the freezing concentration effect, was the reason for the accelerated reactions. The oxidation characteristics of the system were monitored under varying conditions, such as initial pH, dosage ratio, benzoic acid concentration, and reaction with various benzene derivatives. The ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization/mass spectrometry (UHPLC/ESI/MS) measurement showed that peroxynitrous acid (HOONO)-mediated oxidation generated hydroxylated and nitrated byproducts. Additionally, decarboxylated products were detected, indicating direct electron transfer from the organic compounds to HOONO. As freezing is a global phenomenon, and H₂O₂ and NO₂^- are ubiquitous in the environment, the transformation of aromatic compounds with H₂O₂/NO₂^- in cold environments must be considered in environmental chemistry.

Interference of dissolved organic matter and its constituents on the accurate determination of hydrogen peroxide in water

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is ubiquitous in natural waters, and plays an important role in both biological and chemical processes. This study investigated the influence of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and its substituents on the accurate measurement of H₂O₂ by peroxidase-mediated depletion of scopoletin fluorescence method which is one of the most widely used methods for the determination of low concentration H₂O₂ in water. Six DOM and its 24 substituents interfered the determination of H₂O₂ at environmentally relevant concentration of 200 nM with different levels except 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone and benzoic acid, which may be associated with origin and types of DOM, and numbers and position of active functional groups in DOM constituents. Each substance concentration and the corresponding decreasing ratio to the measured H₂O₂ concentration was fitted well to the linear model (R² > 0.9), and the obtained interfering ratios (k, (mgC L⁻¹)⁻¹), expressing the degree of DOM or its substituents per unit concentration to the measurement of H₂O₂, were approximate for DOM, but the order of magnitude of k values of DOM constituents took on a large span from 10^–3 to 10^–7. When DOM levels exceed 0.1 mgC L⁻¹ or its substituent concentration is at nM level (low to 20 nM), the H₂O₂ content will be underestimated substantially. A quantitative structure–activity relationship model with remarkable stability and strong predictability for the k of DOM substituents to H₂O₂ measurement was established, and the k was related to the electron transfer capacity, hydrophobicity and stability of these compounds.

Transcriptome Changes of Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 Laboratory Strains in Response to Photo-Degraded DOM

In this study, we investigated gene expression changes in three bacterial strains (Escherichia coli C3000, Escherichia coli O157:H7 B6914, and Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212), commonly used as indicators of water quality and as control strains in clinical, food, and water microbiology laboratories. Bacterial transcriptome responses from pure cultures were monitored in microcosms containing water amended with manure-derived dissolved organic matter (DOM), previously exposed to simulated sunlight for 12 h. We used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase (qRT-PCR) to compare differentially expressed temporal transcripts between bacteria incubated in microcosms containing sunlight irradiated and non-irradiated DOM, for up to 24 h. In addition, we used whole genome sequencing simultaneously with RNA-seq to identify single nucleotide variants (SNV) acquired in bacterial populations during incubation. These results indicate that E. coli and E. faecalis have different mechanisms for removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced from irradiated DOM. They are also able to produce micromolar concentrations of H₂O₂ from non-irradiated DOM, that should be detrimental to other bacteria present in the environment. Notably, this study provides an assessment of the role of two conjugative plasmids carried by the E. faecalis and highlights the differences in the overall survival dynamics of environmentally-relevant bacteria in the presence of naturally-produced ROS.

Highly sensitive avoidance plays a key role in sensory adaptation to deep-sea hydrothermal vent environments

The environments around deep-sea hydrothermal vents are very harsh conditions for organisms due to the possibility of exposure to highly toxic compounds and extremely hot venting there. Despite such extreme environments, some indigenous species have thrived there. Alvinellid worms (Annelida) are among the organisms best adapted to high-temperature and oxidatively stressful venting regions. Although intensive studies of the adaptation of these worms to the environments of hydrothermal vents have been made, little is known about the worms' sensory adaptation to the severe chemical conditions there. To examine the sensitivity of the vent-endemic worm Paralvinella hessleri to low pH and oxidative stress, we determined the concentration of acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide that induced avoidance behavior of this worm, and compared these concentrations to those obtained for related species inhabiting intertidal zones, Thelepus sp. The concentrations of the chemicals that induced avoidance behavior of P. hessleri were 10-100 times lower than those for Thelepus sp. To identify the receptors for these chemicals, chemical avoidance tests were performed with the addition of ruthenium red, a blocker of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels. This treatment suppressed the chemical avoidance behavior of P. hessleri, which suggests that TRP channels are involved in the chemical avoidance behavior of this species. Our results revealed for the first time hypersensitive detection systems for acid and for oxidative stress in the vent-endemic worm P. hessleri, possibly mediated by TRP channels, suggesting that such sensory systems may have facilitated the adaptation of this organism to harsh vent environments.

Potential risks of TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles released from sunscreens into outdoor swimming pools

The potential risks of nanoparticles (NPs) in sunscreens being released into swimming water were evaluated by a series of laboratory experiments simulating the fate and transport of NPs in outdoor swimming pools. NPs released from sunscreen-applied skin were estimated using pig skins covered with five different commercial sunscreens containing TiO2, ZnO, or both at various concentrations. Assuming that the swimming water treatment processes consisted of filtration, UV irradiation, heating, and chlorination, possible removal of the released NPs by each process was estimated. Generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by the NPs under sunlight and after UV photochemical treatment were measured, and the H2O2 concentration possibly present in the swimming pool was calculated based on some specific scenarios of operating an outdoor swimming pool. It was found that a significant amount of the NPs in sunscreens could be released into the swimming water, and accumulate during circulation through the treatment system. However, the concentration of H2O2 possibly present in the swimming pool should be below the level at which an adverse effect to bathers is concerned.

The performance of hybrid titania/silica-derived xerogels as active antifouling/fouling-release surfaces against the marine alga Ulva linza: in situ generation of hypohalous acids

Mixed titania/silica xerogels were prepared using titanium tetraisopropoxide (TTIP) and tetraethoxy orthosilicate (TEOS). Xerogel properties were modified by incorporating n-octyltriethoxysilane (C8). The xerogels catalyze the oxidation of bromide and chloride with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to produce hypohalous acids at pH 7 and pH 8. The antifouling/ fouling-release performance of a TTIP/C8/TEOS xerogel in the presence and absence of H2O2 was evaluated for the settlement of zoospores of the marine alga Ulva linza and for the removal of sporelings (young plants). In the absence of H2O2, differences in the settlement of zoospores and removal of sporelings were not significant relative to a titanium-free C8/TEOS xerogel. Addition of H2O2 gave a significant reduction in zoospore settlement and sporeling removal relative to the C8/TEOS xerogel and relative to peroxide-free conditions. The impact of TTIP on xerogel characteristics was evaluated by comprehensive contact angle analysis, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Enhanced Removal of Hexavalent Chromium in the Presence of H2O2 in Frozen Aqueous Solutions

The reductive transformation of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) by H2O2 in ice was compared with that in water. The reduction of Cr(VI) was significant at -20 °C (ice), whereas the reduction efficiency was very low at 25 °C (water). This enhanced reduction of Cr(VI) in ice was observed over a wide range of H2O2 concentration (20-1000 μM), pH (3-11), and freezing temperature (-10 to -30 °C). The observed molar ratio of consumed [H2O2] to reduced [Cr(VI)] in ice was in close agreement with the theoretical (stoichiometric) molar ratio (1.5) for H2O2-mediated Cr(VI) reduction through proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET). The synergistic increase in Cr(VI) reduction in water by increasing the H2O2 and proton concentrations confirms that the freeze concentration of both H2O2 and protons in the liquid brine is primarily responsible for the enhanced Cr(VI) reduction in ice. In comparison, the one-electron reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(V) and subsequent reoxidation of Cr(V) to Cr(VI) is the major reaction mechanism in aqueous solution. The reduction efficiency of Cr(VI) by H2O2 in the frozen aqueous electroplating wastewater was similar to that in the frozen aqueous deionized water, which verifies the enhanced reduction of Cr(VI) by freezing in real Cr(VI)-contaminated aquatic systems.

Diurnal changes in the xanthophyll cycle pigments of freshwater algae correlate with the environmental hydrogen peroxide concentration rather than non-photochemical quenching

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

In photosynthetic organisms exposure to high light induces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which in part is prevented by non-photochemical quenching (NPQ). As one of the most stable and longest-lived ROS, H2O2 is involved in key signalling pathways in development and stress responses, although in excess it can induce damage. A ubiquitous response to high light is the induction of the xanthophyll cycle, but its role in algae is unclear as it is not always associated with NPQ induction. The aim of this study was to reveal how diurnal changes in the level of H2O2 are regulated in a freshwater algal community.

METHODS

A natural freshwater community of algae in a temporary rainwater pool was studied, comprising photosynthetic Euglena species, benthic Navicula diatoms, Chlamydomonas and Chlorella species. Diurnal measurements were made of photosynthetic performance, concentrations of photosynthetic pigments and H2O2. The frequently studied model organisms Chlamydomonas and Chlorella species were isolated to study photosynthesis-related H2O2 responses to high light.

KEY RESULTS

NPQ was shown to prevent H2O2 release in Chlamydomonas and Chlorella species under high light; in addition, dissolved organic carbon excited by UV-B radiation was probably responsible for a part of the H2O2 produced in the water column. Concentrations of H2O2 peaked at 2 µm at midday and algae rapidly scavenged H2O2 rather than releasing it. A vertical H2O2 gradient was observed that was lowest next to diatom-rich benthic algal mats. The diurnal changes in photosynthetic pigments included the violaxanthin and diadinoxanthin cycles; the former was induced prior to the latter, but neither was strictly correlated with NPQ.

CONCLUSIONS

The diurnal cycling of H2O2 was apparently modulated by the organisms in this freshwater algal community. Although the community showed flexibility in its levels of NPQ, the diurnal changes in xanthophylls correlated with H2O2 concentrations. Alternative NPQ mechanisms in algae involving proteins of the light-harvesting complex type and antioxidant protection of the thylakoid membrane by de-epoxidized carotenoids are discussed.

Sunscreens as a source of hydrogen peroxide production in coastal waters

Sunscreens have been shown to give the most effective protection for human skin from ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Chemicals from sunscreens (i.e., UV filters) accumulate in the sea and have toxic effects on marine organisms. In this report, we demonstrate that photoexcitation of inorganic UV filters (i.e., TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles) under solar radiation produces significant amounts of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a strong oxidizing agent that generates high levels of stress on marine phytoplankton. Our results indicate that the inorganic oxide nanoparticle content in 1 g of commercial sunscreen produces rates of H2O2 in seawater of up to 463 nM/h, directly affecting the growth of phytoplankton. Conservative estimates for a Mediterranean beach reveal that tourism activities during a summer day may release on the order of 4 kg of TiO2 nanoparticles to the water and produce an increment in the concentration of H2O2 of 270 nM/day. Our results, together with the data provided by tourism records in the Mediterranean, point to TiO2 nanoparticles as the major oxidizing agent entering coastal waters, with direct ecological consequences on the ecosystem.

Blending remote sensing data products to estimate photochemical production of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide in the surface ocean

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and its precursor, superoxide (O₂(-)), are well-studied photochemical products that are pivotal in regulating redox transformations of trace metals and organic matter in the surface ocean. In attempts to understand the magnitude of both H₂O₂ and O₂(-) photoproduction on a global scale, we implemented a model to calculate photochemical fluxes of these products from remotely sensed ocean color and modeled solar irradiances. We generated monthly climatologies for open ocean H₂O₂ photoproduction rates using an average apparent quantum yield (AQY) spectrum determined from laboratory irradiations of oligotrophic water collected in the Gulf of Alaska. Because the formation of H₂O₂ depends on secondary thermal reactions involving O₂(-), we also implemented a temperature correction for the H₂O₂ AQY using remotely sensed sea surface temperature and an Arrhenius relationship for H₂O₂ photoproduction. Daily photoproduction rates of H₂O₂ ranged from <1 to over 100 nM per day, amounting to ∼30 μM per year in highly productive regions. When production rates were calculated without the temperature correction, maximum daily rates were underestimated by 15-25%, highlighting the importance of including the temperature modification for H₂O₂ in these models. By making assumptions about the relationship between H₂O₂ and O₂(-) photoproduction rates and O₂(-) decay kinetics, we present a method for calculating midday O₂(-) steady-state concentrations ([O₂(-)]ss) in the open ocean. Estimated [O₂(-)]ss ranged from 0.1-5 nM assuming biomolecular dismutation was the only sink for O₂(-), but were reduced to 0.1-290 pM when catalytic pathways were included. While the approach presented here provides the first global scale estimates of marine [O₂(-)]ss from remote sensing, the potential of this model to quantify O₂(-) photoproduction rates and [O₂(-)]ss will not be fully realized until the mechanisms controlling O₂(-) photoproduction and decay are better understood.

Sunlight mediated inactivation mechanisms of Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli in clear water versus waste stabilization pond water

Escherichia coli and enterococci have been previously reported to differ in the mechanisms and conditions that affect their sunlight-mediated inactivation in waste stabilization ponds. This study was undertaken to further characterize these mechanisms, using simulated sunlight and single strains of laboratory-grown E. coli and Enterococcus faecalis, with a focus on characterizing the contribution of exogenous reactive oxygen species to the inactivation process. We found that direct damage by UVB light (280-320 nm) was not a significant inactivation mechanism for either organism. E. coli inactivation was strongly dependent on dissolved oxygen concentrations and the presence of UVB wavelengths but E. coli were not susceptible to inactivation by exogenous sensitizers present in waste stabilization pond water. In contrast, E. faecalis inactivation in pond water occurred primarily through exogenous mechanisms, with strong evidence that singlet oxygen is an important transient reactive species. The exogenous mechanism could utilize wavelengths into the visible spectrum and sensitizers were mainly colloidal, distributed between 0.2 and ∼1 μm in size. Singlet oxygen is likely an important endogenous species in both E. faecalis and E. coli inactivation due to sunlight. Although the two organisms had similar inactivation rates in buffered, clear water, the inactivation rate of E. faecalis was 7 times greater than that of E. coli in air-saturated pond water at circumneutral pH due to its susceptibility to exogenous sensitizers and longer wavelengths.

Photoproduction of hydrogen peroxide in aqueous solution from model compounds for chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM)

To explore whether quinone moieties are important in chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) photochemistry in natural waters, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production and associated optical property changes were measured in aqueous solutions irradiated with a Xenon lamp for CDOM model compounds (dihydroquinone, benzoquinone, anthraquinone, napthoquinone, ubiquinone, humic acid HA, fulvic acid FA). All compounds produced H2O2 with concentrations ranging from 15 to 500 μM. Production rates were higher for HA vs. FA (1.32 vs. 0.176 mM h(-1)); values ranged from 6.99 to 0.137 mM h(-1) for quinones. Apparent quantum yields (Θ app; measure of photochemical production efficiency) were higher for HA vs. FA (0.113 vs. 0.016) and ranged from 0.0018 to 0.083 for quinones. Dihydroquinone, the reduced form of benzoquinone, had a higher production rate and efficiency than its oxidized form. Post-irradiation, quinone compounds had absorption spectra similar to HA and FA and 3D-excitation-emission matrix fluorescence spectra (EEMs) with fluorescent peaks in regions associated with CDOM.

Major effect of hydrogen peroxide on bacterioplankton metabolism in the Northeast Atlantic

Reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide have the potential to alter metabolic rates of marine prokaryotes, ultimately impacting the cycling and bioavailability of nutrients and carbon. We studied the influence of H2O2 on prokaryotic heterotrophic production (PHP) and extracellular enzymatic activities (i.e., β-glucosidase [BGase], leucine aminopeptidase [LAPase] and alkaline phosphatase [APase]) in the subtropical Atlantic. With increasing concentrations of H2O2 in the range of 100-1000 nM, LAPase, APase and BGase were reduced by up to 11, 23 and 62%, respectively, in the different water layers. Incubation experiments with subsurface waters revealed a strong inhibition of all measured enzymatic activities upon H2O2 amendments in the range of 10-500 nM after 24 h. H2O2 additions also reduced prokaryotic heterotrophic production by 36-100% compared to the rapid increases in production rates occurring in the unamended controls. Our results indicate that oxidative stress caused by H2O2 affects prokaryotic growth and hydrolysis of specific components of the organic matter pool. Thus, we suggest that oxidative stress may have important consequences on marine carbon and energy fluxes.

Beach boundary layer: a framework for addressing recreational water quality impairment at enclosed beaches

Nearshore waters in bays, harbors, and estuaries are frequently contaminated with human pathogens and fecal indicator bacteria. Tracking down and mitigating this contamination is complicated by the many point and nonpoint sources of fecal pollution that can degrade water quality along the shore. From a survey of the published literature, we propose a conceptual and mathematical framework, the "beach boundary layer model", for understanding and quantifying the relative impact of beach-side and bay-side sources of fecal pollution on nearshore water quality. In the model, bacterial concentration in ankle depth water C(ankle) [bacteria L(-3)] depends on the flux m'' [bacteria L(-2) T(-1)] of fecal bacteria from beach-side sources (bather shedding, bird and dog feces, tidal washing of sediments, decaying vegetation, runoff from small drains, and shallow groundwater discharge), a cross-shore mass transfer velocity k [L T(-1)] that accounts for the physics of nearshore transport and mixing, and a background concentration C(bay) [bacteria L(-3)] attributable to bay-side sources of pollution that impact water quality over large regions (sewage outfalls, creeks and rivers): C(ankle) = m''/k + C(bay). We demonstrate the utility of the model for identifying risk factors and pollution sources likely to impact shoreline water quality, and evaluate the model's underlying assumptions using computational fluid dynamic simulations of flow, turbulence, and mass transport in a trapezoidal channel.

Diel cycles of hydrogen peroxide in marine bathing waters in Southern California, USA: in situ surf zone measurements

Hydrogen peroxide is photochemically produced in natural waters. It has been implicated in the oxidative-induced mortality of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), a microbial water quality measure. To assess levels and cycling of peroxide in beach waters monitored for FIB, diel studies were carried out in surf zone waters in July 2009 at Crystal Cove State Beach, Southern California, USA. Maximum concentrations of 160-200 nM were obtained within 1h of solar noon. Levels dropped at night to 20-40 nM, consistent with photochemical production from sunlight. Day-time production and night-time dark loss rates averaged 16 ± 3 nM h(-1) and 12 ± 4 nM h(-1) respectively. Apparent quantum yields averaged 0.07 ± 0.02. Production was largely dominated by sunlight, with some dependence on chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) levels in waters with high absorption coefficients. Peroxide levels measured here are sufficient to cause oxidative-stress-induced mortality of bacteria, affect FIB diel cycling and impact microbial water quality in marine bathing waters.

Covariation and photoinactivation of traditional and novel indicator organisms and human viruses at a sewage-impacted marine beach

Sunlight modulates concentrations of Escherichia coli and enterococci in marine waters. However, the mechanism of photoinactivation is poorly understood. Additionally, little is known about photoinactivation of other fecal indicators and human viruses in recreational waters. We sampled nearshore waters at Avalon Beach, California hourly for 72 h for reactive oxygen species (ROS), traditional indicator bacteria (E. coli and enterococci, and QPCR-based detection of enterococci), F+ (DNA and RNA) and somatic coliphages, the human-specific marker in Bacteroidales (HF marker), human enterovirus, and human adenovirus. E. coli and enterococci (regardless of measurement technique) covaried with each other and the coliphages suggesting similar sources and fates. The occurrence of the HF and enterovirus markers was correlated, but their occurrence was not positively correlated with the other indicators. Lower concentrations or occurrence of all microbes, excluding the HF and enterovirus markers, were observed during sunlit as opposed to dark hours, pointing to the importance of photoinactivation. Empirical-deterministic models for a subset of microbial indicators were created to determine field-relevant sunlight inactivation rates while accounting for time dependent sources and sinks. Photoinactivation rates of enterococci and E. coli, enterococci measured by QPCR, and somatic coliphage were estimated at 7, 6, 3, and 28 d(-1) I(-1), respectively, where I is UVB intensity in W/m(2). Average H(2)O(2) was 183 nM and the maximum singlet oxygen steady state concentration was 6.6 fM. Given the clarity of the water, direct genomic damage of bacteria and coliphage, as well as indirect endogenous damage of bacteria, were likely the most important inactivation mechanisms, but we cannot rule out a contribution by indirect mechanisms involving the H(2)O(2) and singlet oxygen produced exogenously.

Photochemical production of hydrogen peroxide in size-fractionated Southern California coastal waters

Hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) photochemical production was measured in bulk and size-fractionated surf zone and source waters (Orange County, California, USA). Post-irradiation (60 min; 300 W ozone-free xenon lamp), maximum H(2)O(2) concentrations were approximately 10000 nM (source) and approximately 1500 nM (surf zone). Average initial hydrogen peroxide production rates (HPPR) were higher in bulk source waters (11+/-7.0 nM s(-1)) than the surf zone (2.5+/-1 nM s(-1)). A linear relationship was observed between non-purgeable dissolved organic carbon and absorbance coefficient (m(-1) (300 nm)). HPPR increased with increasing absorbance coefficient for bulk and size-fractionated source waters, consistent with photochemical production from CDOM. However, HPPR varied significantly (5x) for surf zone samples with the same absorbance coefficients, even though optical properties suggested CDOM from salt marsh source waters dominates the surf zone. To compare samples with varying CDOM levels, apparent quantum yields (Phi) for H(2)O(2) photochemical production were calculated. Source waters showed no significant difference in Phi between bulk, large (>1000 Da (>1 kDa)) and small (<1 kDa) size fractions, suggesting H(2)O(2) production efficiency is homogeneously distributed across CDOM size. However, surf zone waters had significantly higher Phi than source (bulk 0.086+/-0.04 vs. 0.034+/-0.013; <1 kDa 0.183+/-0.012 vs. 0.027+/-0.018; >1 kDa 0.151+/-0.090 vs. 0.016+/-0.009), suggesting additional production from non-CDOM sources. H(2)O(2) photochemical production was significant for intertidal beach sand and senescent kelp (sunlight; approximately 42 nM h(-1) vs. approximately 5 nM h(-1)), on the order of CDOM production rates previously measured in coastal and oceanic waters. This is the first study of H(2)O(2) photochemical production in size-fractionated coastal waters showing significant production from non-CDOM sources in the surf zone.

Antifouling character of 'active' hybrid xerogel coatings with sequestered catalysts for the activation of hydrogen peroxide

Halide-permeable xerogel films prepared from sols containing 50 mol% aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES)/50 mol% tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) or 10 mol% APTES/90 mol% TEOS and 0.015 M selenoxide or telluride catalyst in the sol gave reduced settlement of cypris larvae of the barnacle Balanus amphitrite and larvae of the tubeworm Hydroides elegans in the presence of artificial seawater (ASW) and hydrogen peroxide (5-100 microM) relative to glass controls. Settlement of Ulva zoospores was lower on both the 50 mol% APTES/50 mol% TEOS and 10 mol% APTES/90 mol% TEOS xerogel formulations in comparison with glass controls with or without the added catalyst. The 50 mol% APTES/50 mol%TEOS xerogel containing telluride catalyst gave reduced settlement of Ulva zoospores in the presence of 100 microM H(2)O(2) in ASW compared with the same coating without added peroxide. Scanning electron microscopy and XPS data suggest that exposure to H(2)O(2) does not lead to chemical or morphological changes on the xerogel surface.