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Ullah R, Mohiuddin S, Yasmeen K, Zahir E, Ahmed MA. Risk Assessment, Interdependencies, and Source Appraisal of Bioaccumulated Heavy and Essential Metals in Seafood as Pollutants. Biol Trace Elem Res 2024; 202:3800-3809. [PMID: 37950137 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-023-03949-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Fish as seafood is a bioindicator for chemical substances like trace metals in the water systems that accumulate in fish bodies. Fe and Zn as essential and Pb, Ni, and Cd as heavy metals were quantitatively analyzed in fish muscle samples by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, Model AAnalyst-700). Fe and Zn's results agreed with the food quality guidelines. Fe was the highest in the range of 2.6-9.4 in mg kg-1. The Zn content indicates the contribution of anthropogenic agents through the food chain. Ni > Pb > Cd was found in marine fish species and Pb > Ni > Cd in freshwater fish. The results have been explored for source appraisal of bioaccumulated trace metals and categorized selected marine and freshwater species based on characteristics (like life cycle and habitats) by applying multivariate principal component analysis to risk assessment parameters. The Pearson correlation coefficients were applied to the risk assessment parameters for interdependencies of metals. Interestingly, synchronized outcomes were obtained with trace metal data. The study results were interpreted in the context of the fish type, habitat, surroundings, feed, life cycle, etc. The living habitats strongly affect trace metal accumulation, target hazard quotient (THQ), and target cancer risk (TR) attributes. The fishermen's community was at higher risk for carcinogenic effects than other seafood consumers. Overall, determinations for fish species were under safe limits as described by international regulatory bodies (FAO, WHO, ANHMRC, WAA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafi Ullah
- Department of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan.
| | - Shaikh Mohiuddin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
| | - Kousar Yasmeen
- Department of Chemistry, Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Karachi, 75300, Pakistan
| | - Erum Zahir
- Department of Chemistry, University of Karachi, Karachi, 75270, Pakistan
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M B B, Tiwari AK, N S M, Mohan M, C M L. Source apportionment of major ions and trace metals in the lacustrine systems of Schirmacher Hills, East Antarctica. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 946:174189. [PMID: 38936712 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
The fabric of the Antarctic lacustrine system has a crucial role in assimilating the anthropogenic inputs and mitigating their long time impacts on climate change. Here, we present the changes in the concentrations of major ions and trace metals in the surface water of the lacustrine system to understand the extent of anthropogenic impacts from the adjacent Schirmacher Hills, East Antarctica. The results show that the land-locked lakes (closed-basin lakes surrounded by topographical barriers such as mountains or bedrock formations) in the region have a moderate enrichment in elemental concentrations compared to the pro-glacial lakes (marginal freshwater bodies that form at the terminus of a glacier or ice sheet). The water quality index (WQI: 7.58-12.63) and pollution evaluation index (PEI: 1.36-2.35) remained normal, indicating that the water in these lake are of good quality. However, a significant correlation between lithogenic elements (Al, Fe) and potentially toxic elements (Cd, Cr, and Ba), suggests an increase in the anthropogenic impacts. Based on the principal component analysis (PCA), the source of trace metals to the lacustrine systems appears to be the surrounding environment, followed by aerosol dust particles. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) revealed that regional topography significantly impacts the supply of major ions/trace metals to these lakes. The present study provides baseline data and can be used to estimate and forecast future local and/or global anthropogenic contaminations in the lacustrine system of Schirmacher Hills, East Antarctica. Moreover, the presence of research stations (Maitri and Novolazarevskaya), tourist activities, and the potential for anthropogenic stressors necessitate continued monitoring and impact assessment programs within the Schirmacher Hills lacustrine systems. These programs are crucial for safeguarding this pristine ecosystem from future environmental disturbances under a changing Antarctic climate, as mandated by the Antarctic Treaty System and the Indian Antarctic Act.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binish M B
- National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Headland Sada, Vasco da Gama, Goa 403804, India.
| | - A K Tiwari
- National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Headland Sada, Vasco da Gama, Goa 403804, India
| | - Magesh N S
- National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Headland Sada, Vasco da Gama, Goa 403804, India; Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode, Kerala 673571, India
| | - Mahesh Mohan
- School of Environmental Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala 686560, India; International Centre for Polar Studies, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala 686560, India
| | - Laluraj C M
- National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Headland Sada, Vasco da Gama, Goa 403804, India.
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Kumar M, Singh S, Jain A, Yadav S, Dubey A, Trivedi SP. A review on heavy metal-induced toxicity in fishes: Bioaccumulation, antioxidant defense system, histopathological manifestations, and transcriptional profiling of genes. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2024; 83:127377. [PMID: 38183919 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2023.127377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
AIM This review provides information about heavy metal occurrence in the environment, destructive mechanisms, and lethal effects on fish. SUMMARY Heavy metals (HMs) are one of the major causes of environmental contamination globally. The advancement of industries has led to the emanation of toxic substances into the environment. HMs are stable, imperishable compounds and can accumulate in different fish organs when they reach the aquatic regimes. The most ubiquitous HMs are chromium, arsenic, mercury, cadmium, lead, copper, and nickel which can pollute the environment and affect the physiology of fishes. Accumulation of metals in the fish organs causes structural lesions and functional disturbances. Contamination of heavy metals induces oxidative stress, histopathological manifestations, and altered transcriptional gene regulation in the exposed fishes. CONCLUSION Heavy metal bioaccumulation leads to different anomalies in the non-target species. Metal toxicity may cause aquatic organisms to exhibit cellular dysfunction and disturb ecological equilibrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar
- Environmental Toxicology and Bioremediation Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India.
| | - Shefalee Singh
- Environmental Toxicology and Bioremediation Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
| | - Anamika Jain
- Environmental Toxicology and Bioremediation Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
| | - Seema Yadav
- Environmental Toxicology and Bioremediation Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
| | - Aastha Dubey
- Environmental Toxicology and Bioremediation Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
| | - Sunil P Trivedi
- Environmental Toxicology and Bioremediation Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India
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Pintado-Herrera MG, López-López JA, Lara-Martín PA, Medina A, Cadenas I, Giansiracusa S, Corada-Fernández C, Varela JL. Assessment of metal and organic pollutants in combination with stable isotope analysis in tunas from the Gulf of Cadiz (east Atlantic). MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 196:106432. [PMID: 38457908 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2024.106432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Bioaccumulation patterns of heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Fe and Cu) and organic (priority and emerging) pollutants, in combination with stable isotope analysis (SIA), were assessed in muscle and liver of three tuna species from the Gulf of Cadiz (Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus; Atlantic bonito, Sarda sarda, and skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis). SIA and contaminant (heavy metal and organic) profiles separately discriminated between species. There was no significant overlap between the trophic niches estimated from isotopic data, suggesting that there are diet differences which may determine differential bioaccumulation patterns. The levels of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants in muscle of all the individuals analyzed were below the allowable limits established by the current legislation. Concentrations of most contaminants were higher in liver than in muscle, underlining the powerful detoxifying capacity of the liver in tunas. In addition to diet, other factors such as size and age (exposure time to environmental chemicals) explain differences in pollutant accumulation patterns in tissues between species, each with varying degrees of involvement depending on the pollutant class. Our results show that combining contaminant profile data with trophic features based on SIA may help understand pollutant bioaccumulation patterns in upper levels of marine food webs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina G Pintado-Herrera
- Departamento de Química Física, Instituto de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEIMAR), Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - José A López-López
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - Pablo A Lara-Martín
- Departamento de Química Física, Instituto de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEIMAR), Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - Antonio Medina
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510, Puerto Real, Spain.
| | - Irene Cadenas
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - Sara Giansiracusa
- Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, Informatica e Statistica, Università Ca' Foscari Venezia, Italy
| | - Carmen Corada-Fernández
- Departamento de Química Física, Instituto de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Campus de Excelencia Internacional del Mar (CEIMAR), Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - José L Varela
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510, Puerto Real, Spain
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Lozano-Bilbao E, Delgado-Suárez I, Paz-Montelongo S, Hardisson A, Pascual-Fernández JJ, Rubio C, Weller DG, Gutiérrez ÁJ. Risk Assessment and Characterization in Tuna Species of the Canary Islands According to Their Metal Content. Foods 2023; 12:foods12071438. [PMID: 37048259 PMCID: PMC10093732 DOI: 10.3390/foods12071438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Bioaccumulation is the process by which living organisms accumulate substances, such as pesticides, heavy metals, and other pollutants, from their environment. These substances can accumulate in the organism’s tissues over time, leading to potential health risks. Bioaccumulation can occur in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, and can have a significant impact on the health of both humans and wildlife. The objective of this study is to find out if the concentrations of metals in the tuna species of the Canary Islands are suitable for human consumption and if they pose a health risk. Fifteen samples of Acanthocybium solandri, Katsuwonus pelamis, Thunnus albacares, Thunnus obesus and Thunnus thynnus present in canaries were analyzed. Ten grams of muscle were taken from each specimen and the metals Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Li, Ni, Pb and Zn were determined by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES). The tuna species that presented more metals with a higher concentration compared to the others was T. thynnus, reaching up to 100 times more than the other studied species in Fe content with 137.8 ± 100.9 mg/Kg, which may be due to the fact that it is the largest species that reaches ages of more than fifteen years. The species Thunnus thynnus should not be suitable for commercialization according to the current legislation on the concentrations of Cd in blue fish, since 75% of the specimens studied exceeded the concentration legislated for Cd. A total of 40% of the studied specimens of this this species exceeded the legislated values for the concentration of Pb in oily fish meat, so this species must be monitored to ensure that it does not pose a risk to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Lozano-Bilbao
- Grupo Interuniversitario de Toxicología Alimentaria y Ambiental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Campus de Ofra, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
- Ecología Marina Aplicada y Pesquerías, i-UNAT, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Campus Universitario de Tafira, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Animal y Edafología y Geología, Unidad Departamental de Ciencias Marinas, Universidad de La Laguna, 38206 La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Indira Delgado-Suárez
- Grupo Interuniversitario de Toxicología Alimentaria y Ambiental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Campus de Ofra, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
- Departamento de Obstetricia y Ginecología, Pediatría, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Toxicología, Medicina Legal y Forense y Parasitología, Área de Toxicología, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Soraya Paz-Montelongo
- Grupo Interuniversitario de Toxicología Alimentaria y Ambiental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Campus de Ofra, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
- Departamento de Obstetricia y Ginecología, Pediatría, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Toxicología, Medicina Legal y Forense y Parasitología, Área de Toxicología, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Arturo Hardisson
- Grupo Interuniversitario de Toxicología Alimentaria y Ambiental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Campus de Ofra, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
- Departamento de Obstetricia y Ginecología, Pediatría, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Toxicología, Medicina Legal y Forense y Parasitología, Área de Toxicología, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - José J. Pascual-Fernández
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación Social y Turismo (ISTUR), Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Carmen Rubio
- Grupo Interuniversitario de Toxicología Alimentaria y Ambiental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Campus de Ofra, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
- Departamento de Obstetricia y Ginecología, Pediatría, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Toxicología, Medicina Legal y Forense y Parasitología, Área de Toxicología, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Dailos González Weller
- Grupo Interuniversitario de Toxicología Alimentaria y Ambiental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Campus de Ofra, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
- Servicio Público Canario de Salud, Laboratorio Central, 38006 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Ángel J. Gutiérrez
- Grupo Interuniversitario de Toxicología Alimentaria y Ambiental, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de La Laguna (ULL), Campus de Ofra, 38071 San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
- Departamento de Obstetricia y Ginecología, Pediatría, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Toxicología, Medicina Legal y Forense y Parasitología, Área de Toxicología, Universidad de La Laguna, 38200 La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
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Gut as the target tissue of mercury and the extraintestinal effects. Toxicology 2023; 484:153396. [PMID: 36521575 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2022.153396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is harmful to the environment and human health. The gut plays important roles as the biological, chemical, mechanical, and immune barriers in animals and human beings. It has been known that Hg can be absorbed and methylated/demethylated in the gut, on the other hand, the impacts of Hg to the gut (especially the gut microbiota) is less studied. This review paper summarizes the impacts of inorganic Hg (IHg) and methyl Hg (MeHg) on gut barriers and the extraintestinal effects (damage to other organs such as the liver and brain). Both IHg and MeHg were found to cause intestinal microbial disorders, abnormal metabolites production, tight junction damage, and immune responses in the gut. The damage to the gut also contributed to the extraintestinal effects like the hepatotoxicity by IHg and the neurotoxicity by MeHg. In all, it is proposed that the gut should be considered as an important target tissue of Hg exposure, and the regulation of gut microbiota may have the potential for the prevention and control of the toxicity of Hg.
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Wei W, Zhou LJ, Wang S, Zhang Z, Huang JY, Zhang Z, Zhang XP, Zhang XJ, Li J, Zhang YW. Katsuwonus pelamis Peptide and its Complexes Protect Zebrafish and Mice From Hyperuricemia Through Promoting Kidney Excretion of Uric Acid and Inhibiting Liver Xanthine Oxidase Activity. Front Chem 2022; 10:924371. [PMID: 35836673 PMCID: PMC9273819 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.924371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Katsuwonus pelamis peptide and its complexes have the effect of lowering uric acid (UA)-levels. To identify the effect and possible mechanisms, different concentrations of Katsuwonus pelamis peptide and its complexes were administered to the zebrafish and mice hyperuricemia models, and the UA level was measured. Meanwhile, the hyperuricemic mice were treated orally at 0.83, 1.67, and 5.00 mg/g body weight for 7 days with Katsuwonus pelamis peptide and the complexes groups, separately. The levels of serum UA (SUA), urinary UA (UUA), serum creatinine (SCR), blood urine nitrogen (BUN), and xanthine oxidase (XOD) activities were detected in each group. The results showed that the Katsuwonus pelamis peptide (125 μg/ml) and its complexes (83.3 and 250 μg/ml) effectively reduced UA level in zebrafish with hyperuricemia (p < 0.05). The Katsuwonus pelamis peptide at high concentration (5.00 mg/g) decreased the SUA level, SCR level, BUN level, and hepatic XOD activity, and the complexes (1.67 and 5.00 mg/g) significantly reduced the SUA level and hepatic XOD activity (p < 0.05) in the hyperuricemic mice. In addition, in a hyperuricemic mouse model, the UUA level was increased after treatment with Katsuwonus pelamis peptide and its complexes at high concentrations (p < 0.05). The total therapeutic effects in the Katsuwonus pelamis peptide complex group were better than those in the Katsuwonus pelamis peptide group. Thus, Katsuwonus pelamis peptide and its complexes may possibly be used to prevent hyperuricemia via promoting urate secretion and inhibiting XOD activity production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wei
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Li-Jian Zhou
- The People’s Hospital of Danyang, Danyang, China
| | - Shue Wang
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Zheng Zhang
- Zhongshiduqing Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Heze, China
| | - Jia-Ying Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Zhao Zhang
- Zhongshiduqing Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Heze, China
| | | | | | - Jie Li
- Zhongshiduqing Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Heze, China
| | - Ye-Wang Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
- *Correspondence: Ye-Wang Zhang,
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Franco-Fuentes E, Moity N, Ramírez-González J, Andrade-Vera S, González-Weller D, Hardisson A, Paz S, Rubio C, Gutiérrez ÁJ. Metal and metalloids concentration in Galapagos fish liver and gonad tissues. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2021; 173:112953. [PMID: 34537572 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The Galapagos Islands are one of the best-preserved archipelagos in the world. We sampled individuals of six demersal and three pelagic species. The metal concentration of liver and gonad tissues were analyzed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Spectrometry. Findings suggest none of the pelagic species showed metallic concentrations that could pose a risk to their health or reproductive capacity. S. violacea and P. clemensi Zn levels were higher in liver than in gonads, indicating that these species could be in their reproduction period. Zn risk toxicity for the study species is negligible. High concentrations of Cd were found in the liver of C. princeps, C. affinis and P. albomaculatus which could cause morphological and physiological alterations. We hypothesize that the high metal concentrations found in the demersal species could come from the volcanism of the islands, since no major sources of anthropogenic metal contamination can be found in the archipelago.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Franco-Fuentes
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Pediatrics, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Toxicology, Legal and Forensic Medicine and Parasitology, Spain
| | - Nicolas Moity
- Charles Darwin Research Station, Charles Darwin Foundation, Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador
| | - Jorge Ramírez-González
- Charles Darwin Research Station, Charles Darwin Foundation, Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador
| | - Solange Andrade-Vera
- Charles Darwin Research Station, Charles Darwin Foundation, Santa Cruz, Galapagos, Ecuador
| | | | - Arturo Hardisson
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Pediatrics, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Toxicology, Legal and Forensic Medicine and Parasitology, Spain
| | - Soraya Paz
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Pediatrics, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Toxicology, Legal and Forensic Medicine and Parasitology, Spain
| | - Carmen Rubio
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Pediatrics, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Toxicology, Legal and Forensic Medicine and Parasitology, Spain
| | - Ángel J Gutiérrez
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Pediatrics, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Toxicology, Legal and Forensic Medicine and Parasitology, Spain.
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