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Faria-Ramos I, Poças J, Marques C, Santos-Antunes J, Macedo G, Reis CA, Magalhães A. Heparan Sulfate Glycosaminoglycans: (Un)Expected Allies in Cancer Clinical Management. Biomolecules 2021; 11:136. [PMID: 33494442 PMCID: PMC7911160 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In an era when cancer glycobiology research is exponentially growing, we are witnessing a progressive translation of the major scientific findings to the clinical practice with the overarching aim of improving cancer patients' management. Many mechanistic cell biology studies have demonstrated that heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycans are key molecules responsible for several molecular and biochemical processes, impacting extracellular matrix properties and cellular functions. HS can interact with a myriad of different ligands, and therefore, hold a pleiotropic role in regulating the activity of important cellular receptors and downstream signalling pathways. The aberrant expression of HS glycan chains in tumours determines main malignant features, such as cancer cell proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis. In this review, we devote particular attention to HS biological activities, its expression profile and modulation in cancer. Moreover, we highlight HS clinical potential to improve both diagnosis and prognosis of cancer, either as HS-based biomarkers or as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Faria-Ramos
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Juliana Poças
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Molecular Biology Department, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Catarina Marques
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Molecular Biology Department, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - João Santos-Antunes
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Pathology Department, Faculdade de Medicina, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal;
- Gastroenterology Department, Centro Hospitalar S. João, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Guilherme Macedo
- Pathology Department, Faculdade de Medicina, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal;
- Gastroenterology Department, Centro Hospitalar S. João, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
| | - Celso A. Reis
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- Molecular Biology Department, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Pathology Department, Faculdade de Medicina, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Ana Magalhães
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; (I.F.-R.); (J.P.); (C.M.); (J.S.-A.); (C.A.R.)
- Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto (IPATIMUP), 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
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Barbosa GO, Biancardi MF, Carvalho HF. Heparan sulfate fine‐tunes stromal‐epithelial communication in the prostate gland. Dev Dyn 2020; 250:618-628. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme O. Barbosa
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology State University of Campinas Campinas Brazil
| | - Manoel F. Biancardi
- Department of Histology, Embryology and Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences Federal University of Goiás Goiânia Brazil
| | - Hernandes F. Carvalho
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology State University of Campinas Campinas Brazil
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Heparan Sulfate in the Tumor Microenvironment. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1245:147-161. [PMID: 32266657 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-40146-7_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The biology of tumor cells strictly depends on their microenvironment architecture and composition, which controls the availability of growth factors and signaling molecules. Thus, the network of glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, and proteins known as extracellular matrix (ECM) that surrounds the cells plays a central role in the regulation of tumor fate. Heparan sulfate (HS) and heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are highly versatile ECM components that bind and regulate the activity of growth factors, cell membrane receptors, and other ECM molecules. These HS binding partners modulate cell adhesion, motility, and proliferation that are processes altered during tumor progression. Modification in the expression and activity of HS, HSPGs, and the respective metabolic enzymes results unavoidably in alteration of tumor cell microenvironment. In this light, the targeting of HS structure and metabolism is potentially a new tool in the treatment of different cancer types.
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Vlodavsky I, Gross-Cohen M, Weissmann M, Ilan N, Sanderson RD. Opposing Functions of Heparanase-1 and Heparanase-2 in Cancer Progression. Trends Biochem Sci 2017; 43:18-31. [PMID: 29162390 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2017.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Heparanase, the sole heparan sulfate (HS)-degrading endoglycosidase, regulates multiple biological activities that enhance tumor growth, metastasis, angiogenesis, and inflammation. Heparanase accomplishes this by degrading HS and thereby regulating the bioavailability of heparin-binding proteins; priming the tumor microenvironment; mediating tumor-host crosstalk; and inducing gene transcription, signaling pathways, exosome formation, and autophagy that together promote tumor cell performance and chemoresistance. By contrast, heparanase-2, a close homolog of heparanase, lacks enzymatic activity, inhibits heparanase activity, and regulates selected genes that promote normal differentiation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, tumor fibrosis, and apoptosis, together resulting in tumor suppression. The emerging premise is that heparanase is a master regulator of the aggressive phenotype of cancer, while heparanase-2 functions as a tumor suppressor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel Vlodavsky
- Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel.
| | - Miriam Gross-Cohen
- Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Marina Weissmann
- Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Neta Ilan
- Technion Integrated Cancer Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Ralph D Sanderson
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Ramani VC, Zhan F, He J, Barbieri P, Noseda A, Tricot G, Sanderson RD. Targeting heparanase overcomes chemoresistance and diminishes relapse in myeloma. Oncotarget 2016; 7:1598-607. [PMID: 26624982 PMCID: PMC4811483 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In most myeloma patients, even after several rounds of intensive therapy, drug resistant tumor cells survive and proliferate aggressively leading to relapse. In the present study, gene expression profiling of tumor cells isolated from myeloma patients after sequential rounds of chemotherapy, revealed for the first time that heparanase, a potent promoter of myeloma growth and progression, was elevated in myeloma cells that survived therapy. Based on this clinical data, we hypothesized that heparanase was involved in myeloma resistance to drug therapy. In several survival and viability assays, elevated heparanase expression promoted resistance of myeloma tumor cells to chemotherapy. Mechanistically, this enhanced survival was due to heparanase-mediated ERK signaling. Importantly, use of the heparanase inhibitor Roneparstat in combination with chemotherapy clearly diminished the growth of disseminated myeloma tumors in vivo. Moreover, use of Roneparstat either during or after chemotherapy diminished regrowth of myeloma tumors in vivo following therapy. These results provide compelling evidence that heparanase is a promising, novel target for overcoming myeloma resistance to therapy and that targeting heparanase has the potential to prevent relapse in myeloma and possibly other cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishnu C Ramani
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Fenghuang Zhan
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.,Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Jianbo He
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Paola Barbieri
- Sigma-tau Research Switzerland S.A., Mendrisio, Switzerland
| | | | - Guido Tricot
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.,Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Ralph D Sanderson
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.,Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Vlodavsky I, Singh P, Boyango I, Gutter-Kapon L, Elkin M, Sanderson RD, Ilan N. Heparanase: From basic research to therapeutic applications in cancer and inflammation. Drug Resist Updat 2016; 29:54-75. [PMID: 27912844 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Heparanase, the sole heparan sulfate degrading endoglycosidase, regulates multiple biological activities that enhance tumor growth, angiogenesis and metastasis. Heparanase expression is enhanced in almost all cancers examined including various carcinomas, sarcomas and hematological malignancies. Numerous clinical association studies have consistently demonstrated that upregulation of heparanase expression correlates with increased tumor size, tumor angiogenesis, enhanced metastasis and poor prognosis. In contrast, knockdown of heparanase or treatments of tumor-bearing mice with heparanase-inhibiting compounds, markedly attenuate tumor progression further underscoring the potential of anti-heparanase therapy for multiple types of cancer. Heparanase neutralizing monoclonal antibodies block myeloma and lymphoma tumor growth and dissemination; this is attributable to a combined effect on the tumor cells and/or cells of the tumor microenvironment. In fact, much of the impact of heparanase on tumor progression is related to its function in mediating tumor-host crosstalk, priming the tumor microenvironment to better support tumor growth, metastasis and chemoresistance. The repertoire of the physio-pathological activities of heparanase is expanding. Specifically, heparanase regulates gene expression, activates cells of the innate immune system, promotes the formation of exosomes and autophagosomes, and stimulates signal transduction pathways via enzymatic and non-enzymatic activities. These effects dynamically impact multiple regulatory pathways that together drive inflammatory responses, tumor survival, growth, dissemination and drug resistance; but in the same time, may fulfill some normal functions associated, for example, with vesicular traffic, lysosomal-based secretion, stress response, and heparan sulfate turnover. Heparanase is upregulated in response to chemotherapy in cancer patients and the surviving cells acquire chemoresistance, attributed, at least in part, to autophagy. Consequently, heparanase inhibitors used in tandem with chemotherapeutic drugs overcome initial chemoresistance, providing a strong rationale for applying anti-heparanase therapy in combination with conventional anti-cancer drugs. Heparin-like compounds that inhibit heparanase activity are being evaluated in clinical trials for various types of cancer. Heparanase neutralizing monoclonal antibodies are being evaluated in pre-clinical studies, and heparanase-inhibiting small molecules are being developed based on the recently resolved crystal structure of the heparanase protein. Collectively, the emerging premise is that heparanase expressed by tumor cells, innate immune cells, activated endothelial cells as well as other cells of the tumor microenvironment is a master regulator of the aggressive phenotype of cancer, an important contributor to the poor outcome of cancer patients and a prime target for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel Vlodavsky
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel.
| | - Preeti Singh
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Ilanit Boyango
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Lilach Gutter-Kapon
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Michael Elkin
- Sharett Oncology Institute, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ralph D Sanderson
- Department of Pathology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Neta Ilan
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
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Arvatz G, Weissmann M, Ilan N, Vlodavsky I. Heparanase and cancer progression: New directions, new promises. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2016; 12:2253-6. [PMID: 27054564 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2016.1171442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparanase, the sole heparan sulfate degrading endoglycosidase, regulates multiple biological activities that enhance tumor growth, angiogenesis and metastasis. Much of the impact of heparanase on tumor progression is related to its function in mediating tumor-host crosstalk, priming the tumor microenvironment to better support tumor progression. Heparanase expression is enhanced in almost all cancers examined including various carcinomas, sarcomas and hematological malignancies. Numerous clinical association studies have consistently demonstrated that upregulated heparanase expression correlates with increased tumor size, tumor angiogenesis, enhanced metastasis and poor prognosis. Notably, heparanase is ranked among the most frequently recognized tumor antigens in patients with pancreatic, colorectal or breast cancer, favoring heparanase-based immunotherapy. Development of heparanase inhibitors focused on carbohydrate-based compounds of which 4 are being evaluated in clinical trials for various types of cancer, including myeloma, pancreatic carcinoma and hepatocellular carcinoma. Owing to their heparin-like nature, these compounds may exert off target effects. Newly generated heparanase neutralizing monoclonal antibodies profoundly attenuated myeloma and lymphoma tumor growth and dissemination in preclinical models, likely by targeting heparanase in the tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gil Arvatz
- a Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion , Haifa , Israel
| | - Marina Weissmann
- a Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion , Haifa , Israel
| | - Neta Ilan
- a Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion , Haifa , Israel
| | - Israel Vlodavsky
- a Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion , Haifa , Israel
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8
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Chemotherapy induces expression and release of heparanase leading to changes associated with an aggressive tumor phenotype. Matrix Biol 2016; 55:22-34. [PMID: 27016342 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2016.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Revised: 03/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
High heparanase expression is associated with enhanced tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis in many types of cancer. However, the mechanisms driving high heparanase expression are not fully understood. In the present study, we discovered that drugs used in the treatment of myeloma upregulate heparanase expression. Frontline anti-myeloma drugs, bortezomib and carfilzomib activate the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway to trigger heparanase expression in tumor cells. Blocking the NF-κB pathway diminished this chemotherapy-induced upregulation of heparanase expression. Activated NF-κB signaling was also found to drive high heparanase expression in drug resistant myeloma cell lines. In addition to enhancing heparanase expression, chemotherapy also caused release of heparanase by tumor cells into the conditioned medium. This soluble heparanase was taken up by macrophages and triggered an increase in TNF-α production. Heparanase is also taken up by tumor cells where it induced expression of HGF, VEGF and MMP-9 and activated ERK and Akt signaling pathways. These changes induced by heparanase are known to be associated with the promotion of an aggressive tumor phenotype. Importantly, the heparanase inhibitor Roneparstat diminished the uptake and the downstream effects of soluble heparanase. Together, these discoveries reveal a novel mechanism whereby chemotherapy upregulates heparanase, a known promoter of myeloma growth, and suggest that therapeutic targeting of heparanase during anti-cancer therapy may improve patient outcome.
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Theocharis AD, Skandalis SS, Gialeli C, Karamanos NK. Extracellular matrix structure. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2016; 97:4-27. [PMID: 26562801 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1352] [Impact Index Per Article: 169.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) is a non-cellular three-dimensional macromolecular network composed of collagens, proteoglycans/glycosaminoglycans, elastin, fibronectin, laminins, and several other glycoproteins. Matrix components bind each other as well as cell adhesion receptors forming a complex network into which cells reside in all tissues and organs. Cell surface receptors transduce signals into cells from ECM, which regulate diverse cellular functions, such as survival, growth, migration, and differentiation, and are vital for maintaining normal homeostasis. ECM is a highly dynamic structural network that continuously undergoes remodeling mediated by several matrix-degrading enzymes during normal and pathological conditions. Deregulation of ECM composition and structure is associated with the development and progression of several pathologic conditions. This article emphasizes in the complex ECM structure as to provide a better understanding of its dynamic structural and functional multipotency. Where relevant, the implication of the various families of ECM macromolecules in health and disease is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Achilleas D Theocharis
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis & Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece
| | - Spyros S Skandalis
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis & Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece
| | - Chrysostomi Gialeli
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis & Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece; Division of Medical Protein Chemistry, Department of Translational Medicine Malmö, Lund University, S-20502 Malmö, Sweden
| | - Nikos K Karamanos
- Biochemistry, Biochemical Analysis & Matrix Pathobiology Research Group, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece.
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Functional and structural characterization of a heparanase. Nat Chem Biol 2015; 11:955-7. [DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Iozzo RV, Schaefer L. Proteoglycan form and function: A comprehensive nomenclature of proteoglycans. Matrix Biol 2015; 42:11-55. [PMID: 25701227 PMCID: PMC4859157 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2015.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 800] [Impact Index Per Article: 88.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We provide a comprehensive classification of the proteoglycan gene families and respective protein cores. This updated nomenclature is based on three criteria: Cellular and subcellular location, overall gene/protein homology, and the utilization of specific protein modules within their respective protein cores. These three signatures were utilized to design four major classes of proteoglycans with distinct forms and functions: the intracellular, cell-surface, pericellular and extracellular proteoglycans. The proposed nomenclature encompasses forty-three distinct proteoglycan-encoding genes and many alternatively-spliced variants. The biological functions of these four proteoglycan families are critically assessed in development, cancer and angiogenesis, and in various acquired and genetic diseases where their expression is aberrant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato V Iozzo
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signaling Program, Kimmel Cancer Center, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
| | - Liliana Schaefer
- Pharmazentrum Frankfurt/ZAFES, Institut für Allgemeine Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Klinikum der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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Douglass S, Goyal A, Iozzo RV. The role of perlecan and endorepellin in the control of tumor angiogenesis and endothelial cell autophagy. Connect Tissue Res 2015; 56:381-91. [PMID: 26181327 PMCID: PMC4769797 DOI: 10.3109/03008207.2015.1045297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
During tumor growth and angiogenesis there is a dynamic remodeling of tissue architecture often accompanied by the release of extracellular matrix constituents full of biological activity. One of the key constituents of the tumor microenvironment is the large heparan sulfate proteoglycan perlecan. This proteoglycan, strategically located at cell surfaces and within basement membranes, is a well-defined pro-angiogenic molecule when intact. However, when partially processed by proteases released during cancer remodeling and invasion, the C-terminal fragment of perlecan, known as endorepellin, has opposite effects than its parent molecule. Endorepellin is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis by exerting a dual receptor antagonism by simultaneously engaging VEGFR2 and α2β1 integrin. Signaling through the α2β1 integrin leads to actin disassembly and block of endothelial cell migration, necessary for capillary morphogenesis. Signaling through the VEGFR2 induces dephosphorylation of the receptor via activation of SHP-1 and suppression of downstream proangiogenic effectors, especially attenuating VEGFA expression. A novel and emerging role of endorepellin is its ability to evoke autophagy by activating Peg3 and various canonical autophagic markers. This effect is specific for endothelial cells as these are the primary cells expressing both VEGFR2 and α2β1 integrin. Thus, an endogenous fragment of a ubiquitous proteoglycan can regulate both angiogenesis and autophagy through a dual receptor antagonism. The biological properties of this natural endogenous protein place endorepellin as a potential therapeutic agent against cancer or diseases where angiogenesis is prominent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Douglass
- a Department of Pathology , Anatomy and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signalling Program, Kimmel Cancer Centre, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| | - Atul Goyal
- a Department of Pathology , Anatomy and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signalling Program, Kimmel Cancer Centre, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University , Philadelphia , PA , USA
| | - Renato V Iozzo
- a Department of Pathology , Anatomy and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signalling Program, Kimmel Cancer Centre, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University , Philadelphia , PA , USA
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13
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Barash U, Zohar Y, Wildbaum G, Beider K, Nagler A, Karin N, Ilan N, Vlodavsky I. Heparanase enhances myeloma progression via CXCL10 downregulation. Leukemia 2014; 28:2178-87. [PMID: 24699306 PMCID: PMC4185261 DOI: 10.1038/leu.2014.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2013] [Revised: 03/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In order to explore the mechanism(s) underlying the pro-tumorigenic capacity of heparanase, we established an inducible Tet-on system. Heparanase expression was markedly increased following addition of doxycycline (Dox) to the culture medium of CAG human myeloma cells infected with the inducible heparanase gene construct, resulting in increased colony number and size in soft agar. Moreover, tumor xenografts produced by CAG-heparanase cells were markedly increased in mice supplemented with Dox in their drinking water compared with control mice maintained without Dox. Consistently, we found that heparanase induction is associated with decreased levels of CXCL10, suggesting that this chemokine exerts tumor-suppressor properties in myeloma. Indeed, recombinant CXCL10 attenuated the proliferation of CAG, U266 and RPMI-8266 myeloma cells. Similarly, CXCL10 attenuated the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells, implying that CXCL10 exhibits anti-angiogenic capacity. Strikingly, development of tumor xenografts produced by CAG-heparanase cells overexpressing CXCL10 was markedly reduced compared with control cells. Moreover, tumor growth was significantly attenuated in mice inoculated with human or mouse myeloma cells and treated with CXCL10-Ig fusion protein, indicating that CXCL10 functions as a potent anti-myeloma cytokine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uri Barash
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Yaniv Zohar
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Gizi Wildbaum
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Katia Beider
- Division of Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Arnon Nagler
- Division of Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | - Nathan Karin
- Department of Immunology, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Neta Ilan
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
| | - Israel Vlodavsky
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, Technion, Haifa 31096, Israel
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Diabetes is a widespread disease with many clinical pathologies. Despite numerous pharmaceutical strategies for treatment, the incidence of diabetes continues to increase. Hyperglycemia, observed in diabetes, causes endothelial injury resulting in microvascular and macrovascular complications such as nephropathy, retinopathy, neuropathy, and increased atherosclerosis. RECENT ADVANCES Proteoglycans are chemically diverse macromolecules consisting of a protein core with glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) attached. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are important compounds found on the endothelial cell membrane and in the extracellular matrix, which play an important role in growth regulation and serve as a reservoir for cytokines and other bioactive molecules. Endothelial cells are altered in hyperglycemia by a reduction in heparan sulfate and upregulation and secretion of heparanase, an enzyme that degrades heparan sulfate GAGs on proteoglycans. Reactive oxygen species, increased in diabetes, also destroy GAGs. CRITICAL ISSUES Preservation of heparan sulfate proteoglycans on endothelial cells may be a strategy to prevent angiopathy associated with diabetes. The use of GAGs and GAG-like compounds may increase endothelial heparan sulfate and prevent an increase in the heparanase enzyme. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Elucidating the mechanisms of GAG depletion and its significance in endothelial health may help to further understand, prevent, and treat cardiovascular complications associated with diabetes. Further studies examining the role of GAGs and GAG-like compounds in maintaining endothelial health, including their effect on heparanase, will determine the feasibility of these compounds in diabetes treatment. Preservation of heparan sulfate by decreasing heparanase may have important implications not only in diabetes, but also in cardiovascular disease and tumor biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda M Hiebert
- 1 Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan , Saskatoon, Canada
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15
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Boyango I, Barash U, Naroditsky I, Li JP, Hammond E, Ilan N, Vlodavsky I. Heparanase cooperates with Ras to drive breast and skin tumorigenesis. Cancer Res 2014; 74:4504-14. [PMID: 24970482 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-2962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Heparanase has been implicated in cancer but its contribution to the early stages of cancer development is uncertain. In this study, we utilized nontransformed human MCF10A mammary epithelial cells and two genetic mouse models [Hpa-transgenic (Hpa-Tg) and knockout mice] to explore heparanase function at early stages of tumor development. Heparanase overexpression resulted in significantly enlarged asymmetrical acinar structures, indicating increased cell proliferation and decreased organization. This phenotype was enhanced by coexpression of heparanase variants with a mutant H-Ras gene, which was sufficient to enable growth of invasive carcinoma in vivo. These observations were extended in vivo by comparing the response of Hpa-Tg mice to a classical two-stage 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA)/12-o-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) protocol for skin carcinogenesis. Hpa-Tg mice overexpressing heparanase were far more sensitive than control mice to DMBA/TPA treatment, exhibiting a 10-fold increase in the number and size of tumor lesions. Conversely, DMBA/TPA-induced tumor formation was greatly attenuated in Hpa-KO mice lacking heparanase, pointing to a critical role of heparanase in skin tumorigenesis. In support of these observations, the heparanase inhibitor PG545 potently suppressed tumor progression in this model system. Taken together, our findings establish that heparanase exerts protumorigenic properties at early stages of tumor initiation, cooperating with Ras to dramatically promote malignant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilanit Boyango
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Uri Barash
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Inna Naroditsky
- Department of Pathology, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel
| | - Jin-Ping Li
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Neta Ilan
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel
| | - Israel Vlodavsky
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, The Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion, Haifa, Israel.
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16
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Poluzzi C, Casulli J, Goyal A, Mercer TJ, Neill T, Iozzo RV. Endorepellin evokes autophagy in endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:16114-28. [PMID: 24737315 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.556530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Endorepellin, the C-terminal fragment of the heparan sulfate proteoglycan perlecan, possesses angiostatic activity via dual receptor antagonism, through concurrent binding to the α2β1 integrin and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2). Here, we discovered that soluble endorepellin induced autophagy in endothelial cells by modulating the expression of Beclin 1, LC3, and p62, three established autophagic markers. Moreover, endorepellin evoked expression of the imprinted tumor suppressor gene Peg3 and its co-localization with Beclin 1 and LC3 in autophagosomes, suggesting a major role for this gene in endothelial cell autophagy. Mechanistically, endorepellin induced autophagy by down-regulating VEGFR2 via the two LG1/2 domains, whereas the C-terminal LG3 domain, the portion responsible for binding the α2β1 integrin, was ineffective. Endorepellin also induced transcriptional activity of the BECN1 promoter in endothelial cells, and the VEGFR2-specific tyrosine kinase inhibitor, SU5416, blocked this effect. Finally, we found a correlation between endorepellin-evoked inhibition of capillary morphogenesis and enhanced autophagy. Thus, we have identified a new role for this endogenous angiostatic fragment in inducing autophagy through a VEGFR2-dependent but α2β1 integrin-independent pathway. This novel mechanism specifically targets endothelial cells and could represent a promising new strategy to potentiate the angiostatic effect of endorepellin and perhaps other angiostatic matrix proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Poluzzi
- From the Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signaling Program, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
| | - Joshua Casulli
- From the Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signaling Program, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
| | - Atul Goyal
- From the Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signaling Program, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
| | - Thomas J Mercer
- From the Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signaling Program, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
| | - Thomas Neill
- From the Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signaling Program, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
| | - Renato V Iozzo
- From the Department of Pathology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology and the Cancer Cell Biology and Signaling Program, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
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17
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Suhovskih AV, Tsidulko AY, Kutsenko OS, Kovner AV, Aidagulova SV, Ernberg I, Grigorieva EV. Transcriptional Activity of Heparan Sulfate Biosynthetic Machinery is Specifically Impaired in Benign Prostate Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer. Front Oncol 2014; 4:79. [PMID: 24782989 PMCID: PMC3995048 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2014.00079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfates (HSs) are key components of mammalian cells surface and extracellular matrix. Structure and composition of HS, generated by HS-biosynthetic system through non-template-driven process, are significantly altered in cancer tissues. The aim of this study was to investigate the involvement of HS-metabolic machinery in prostate carcinogenesis. Transcriptional patterns of HS-metabolic enzymes (EXT1, EXT2, NDST1, NDST2, GLCE, 3OST1/HS3ST1, SULF1, SULF2, HPSE) were determined in normal, benign, and cancer human prostate tissues and cell lines (PNT2, LNCaP, PC3, DU145). Stability of the HS-metabolic system patterns under the pressure of external or internal stimuli was studied. Overall impairment of transcriptional activity of HS-metabolic machinery was detected in benign prostate hyperplasia, while both significant decrease in the transcriptional activity and changes in the expression patterns of HS metabolism-involved genes were observed in prostate tumors. Prostate cancer cell lines possessed specific transcriptional patterns of HS metabolism-involved genes; however, expression activity of the system was similar to that of normal prostate PNT2 cells. HS-metabolic system was able to dynamically react to different external or internal stimuli in a cell type-dependent manner. LNCaP cells were sensitive to the external stimuli (5-aza-deoxycytidin or Trichostatin A treatments; co-cultivation with human fibroblasts), whereas PC3 cells almost did not respond to the treatments. Ectopic GLCE over-expression resulted in transcriptional activation of HS-biosynthetic machinery in both cell lines, suggesting an existence of a self-regulating mechanism for the coordinated transcription of HS metabolism-involved genes. Taken together, these findings demonstrate impairment of HS-metabolic system in prostate tumors in vivo but not in prostate cancer cells in vitro, and suggest that as a potential microenvironmental biomarker for prostate cancer diagnostics and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia V Suhovskih
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics SD RAMS , Novosibirsk , Russia ; Novosibirsk State University , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | | | - Olesya S Kutsenko
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics SD RAMS , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | - Anna V Kovner
- Research Center of Clinical and Experimental Medicine SD RAMS , Novosibirsk , Russia
| | | | | | - Elvira V Grigorieva
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biophysics SD RAMS , Novosibirsk , Russia ; MTC, Karolinska Institute , Stockholm , Sweden
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18
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Cassinelli G, Lanzi C, Tortoreto M, Cominetti D, Petrangolini G, Favini E, Zaffaroni N, Pisano C, Penco S, Vlodavsky I, Zunino F. Antitumor efficacy of the heparanase inhibitor SST0001 alone and in combination with antiangiogenic agents in the treatment of human pediatric sarcoma models. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 85:1424-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2013] [Revised: 02/20/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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19
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Vlodavsky I, Blich M, Li JP, Sanderson RD, Ilan N. Involvement of heparanase in atherosclerosis and other vessel wall pathologies. Matrix Biol 2013; 32:241-51. [PMID: 23499530 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2012] [Revised: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Heparanase, the sole mammalian endoglycosidase degrading heparan sulfate, is causally involved in cancer metastasis, angiogenesis, inflammation and kidney dysfunction. Despite the wide occurrence and impact of heparan sulfate proteoglycans in vascular biology, the significance of heparanase in vessel wall disorders is underestimated. Blood vessels are highly active structures whose morphology rapidly adapts to maintain vascular function under altered systemic and local conditions. In some pathologies (restenosis, thrombosis, atherosclerosis) this normally beneficial adaptation may be detrimental to overall function. Enzymatic dependent and independent effects of heparanase on arterial structure mechanics and repair closely regulate arterial compliance and neointimal proliferation following endovascular stenting. Additionally, heparanase promotes thrombosis after vascular injury and contributes to a pro-coagulant state in human carotid atherosclerosis. Importantly, heparanase is closely associated with development and progression of atherosclerotic plaques, including stable to unstable plaque transition. Consequently, heparanase levels are markedly increased in the plasma of patients with acute myocardial infarction. Noteworthy, heparanase activates macrophages, resulting in marked induction of cytokine expression associated with plaque progression towards vulnerability. Together, heparanase emerges as a regulator of vulnerable lesion development and potential target for therapeutic intervention in atherosclerosis and related vessel wall complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel Vlodavsky
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, The Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and Research Institute, Technion, Haifa, Israel.
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20
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Vlodavsky I, Iozzo RV, Sanderson RD. Heparanase: multiple functions in inflammation, diabetes and atherosclerosis. Matrix Biol 2013; 32:220-2. [PMID: 23499526 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2013.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2013] [Revised: 02/02/2013] [Accepted: 02/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Israel Vlodavsky
- Cancer and Vascular Biology Research Center, The Rappaport Faculty of Medicine and, Research Institute, Technion, Haifa, Israel
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21
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Li Y, Liu H, Huang YY, Pu LJ, Zhang XD, Jiang CC, Jiang ZW. Suppression of endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced invasion and migration of breast cancer cells through the downregulation of heparanase. Int J Mol Med 2013; 31:1234-42. [PMID: 23467544 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2013.1292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 02/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor metastasis is the ultimate stage of cancer, and the primary cause of mortality in patients. Tumor cells breaking through the natural barrier consisting of the basement membrane (BM) and extracellular matrix (ECM) is the a crucial step in tumor invasion and metastasis. Thus, protecting this barrier is the key to reducing mortality. Heparanase is a mammalian endo-β-glucuronidase which has been found to promote the cleavage of heparan sulfate (HS), and plays a significant role in tumor cell invasion and metastasis. Although chemotherapeutic reagents have a strong antitumor activity, they may promote the invasion and migration of cancer cells, as has been observed during clinical treatment. Chemotherapeutic reagents can induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress; in this study, we used adriamycin (ADM) and a classical ER stress inducer, tunicamycin (TM). We report that the activation of ER stress is involved in the enhanced invasion and migration ability of breast cancer cells and we hypothesized that this effect is associated with the activation of heparanase. In support of this, we used the heparanase inhibitor, OGT2115, and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) to inhibit the expression and activity of heparanase, and we found that the invasion and migration ability of the cells was suppressed. Our findings demonstrate that heparanase inhibitors suppress breast cancer cell invasion and migration induced by ER stress, and provide a strong rationale for the development of heparanase-based therapeutics for the prevention of metastasis induced by chemotherapeutic reagents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233000, P.R. China
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22
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Morrione A, Neill T, Iozzo RV. Dichotomy of decorin activity on the insulin-like growth factor-I system. FEBS J 2013; 280:2138-49. [PMID: 23351020 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The stromal-specific proteoglycan decorin has emerged in recent years as a critical regulator of tumor initiation and progression. Decorin regulates the biology of various types of cancer by modulating the activity of several receptor tyrosine kinases coordinating growth, survival, migration, and angiogenesis. Decorin binds to surface receptors for epidermal growth factor and hepatocyte growth factor with high affinity, and negatively regulates their activity and signaling via robust internalization and eventual degradation. The insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I system plays a critical role in the regulation of cell growth both in vivo and in vitro. The IGF-I receptor (IGF-IR) is also essential for cellular transformation, owing to its ability to enhance cell proliferation and protect cancer cells from apoptosis. Recent data have pointed to a role of decorin in regulating the IGF-I system in both nontransformed and transformed cells. Significantly, there is a surprising dichotomy in the mechanism of decorin action on IGF-IR signaling, which differs considerably between physiological and pathological cellular models. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on decorin regulation of the IGF-I system in normal and transformed cells, and discuss possible decorin-based therapeutic approaches to target IGF-IR-driven tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Morrione
- Department of Urology and the Biology of Prostate Cancer Program, Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA.
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23
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Couchman JR, Pataki CA. An introduction to proteoglycans and their localization. J Histochem Cytochem 2012; 60:885-97. [PMID: 23019015 DOI: 10.1369/0022155412464638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteoglycans comprise a core protein to which one or more glycosaminoglycan chains are covalently attached. Although a small number of proteins have the capacity to be glycanated and become proteoglycans, it is now realized that these macromolecules have a range of functions, dependent on type and in vivo location, and have important roles in invertebrate and vertebrate development, maintenance, and tissue repair. Many biologically potent small proteins can bind glycosaminoglycan chains as a key part of their function in the extracellular matrix, at the cell surface, and also in some intracellular locations. Therefore, the participation of proteoglycans in disease is receiving increased attention. In this short review, proteoglycan structure, function, and localizations are summarized, with reference to accompanying reviews in this issue as well as other recent literature. Included are some remarks on proteoglycan and glycosaminoglycan localization techniques, with reference to the special physicochemical properties of these complex molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Couchman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.
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