Biochemical and sensory changes in dry-cured ham salted with partial replacements of NaCl by other chloride salts

Investigating the effects of low-salt processing on the umami peptides of dry-cured ham using peptidomics techniques

This study investigated the effect of low-salt processing on the umami peptide profile of dry-cured hams. Peptidomics data showed 633 umami peptides in the low- and full-salt groups. Among them, 36.2% and 26.5% of shared umami peptides in the low-salt group were significantly down- and up-regulated in relative abundance. Multivariate statistical analysis showed 1011 significantly different umami peptides (SDUPs) in the low- and full-salt groups. Creatine kinase M-type (CKM) and fast skeletal muscle troponin T (TnTf) were the main precursor proteins of these SDUPs. At the end of processing, the relative expression of CKM was lower in the low-salt group than in the full-salt group (P < 0.05), but there was no significant difference in TnTf. More dipeptidyl peptidase cleavage sites were observed in CKM and TnTf proteins in the low-salt group.

Effect of Inoculation with Autochthonous Lactic Acid Bacteria on Flavor, Texture, and Color Formation of Dry Sausages with NaCl Partly Substituted by KCl

The effects of inoculating lactic acid bacteria (LAB), specifically Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Latilactobacillus sakei, Latilactobacillus curvatus, and Weissella hellenica on the flavor, texture, and color formation of dry sausages in which NaCl was partially substituted by 40% KCl, were explored in this study. It was found that LAB inoculation increased the presence of ketones, alcohols, acids, esters, and terpenes. It also reduced the pH, moisture, protein, and fat content, improving the b*-value, flavor, and texture of the sausages. Notably, L. sakei inoculation showed the most significant improvement in dry sausages with NaCl substitutes, especially on the reduction of bitterness. Meanwhile, there was a close positive correlation between the LAB count with the alcohols and esters formation of dry sausage with NaCl substitution (p < 0.05). These findings offer insight into improving the product characteristics of dry sausages using NaCl substitutes.

Effect of Overripening on the Physico-Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Boneless, Salt-Reduced Iberian Dry-Cured Ham

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of extended maturation and temperature increase on the physico-chemical, biochemical, instrumental color and texture, sensory, and acceptability parameters of cured and boneless Iberian hams. Given the limited knowledge in this area, our objective was to develop a ham with enhanced proteolysis, potentially leading to increased bioactive peptide generation and superior sensory characteristics compared to salt-reduced counterparts. To achieve this, a batch of hams cured up to 38% loss at 30 °C and two batches cured up to 42% loss at 30 °C and 36 °C were evaluated. Results showed that the increase in processing time and temperature significantly enhanced (p < 0.05) ham proteolysis and amino acid content without adversely affecting its texture. No significant differences were observed in instrumental texture parameters or sensory attributes as evaluated by consumers. These processing conditions also increased the content of free amino acids, improving the product quality. Overall, these processing modifications resulted in hams with excellent sensory acceptability and enhanced bioactive potential despite the salt reduction.

Quality and Flavor Difference in Dry-Cured Meat Treated with Low-Sodium Salts: An Emphasis on Magnesium

The present study aimed to develop low-sodium curing agents for dry-cured meat products. Four low-sodium formulations (SPMA, SPM, SP, and SM) were used for dry-curing meat. The physicochemical properties and flavor of the dry-cured meat were investigated. The presence of Mg2+ ions hindered the penetration of Na+ into the meat. The weight loss, moisture content, and pH of all low-sodium salt groups were lower than those of S. Mg2+ addition increased the water activity (Aw) of SPMA, SPM, and SM. Dry-curing meat with low-sodium salts promoted the production of volatile flavor compounds, with Mg2+ playing a more prominent role. Furthermore, low-sodium salts also promoted protein degradation and increased the content of free amino acids in dry-cured meat, especially in SM. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the low-sodium salts containing Mg2+ were conducive to improving the quality of dry-cured meat products. Therefore, low-sodium salts enriched with Mg2+ become a desirable low-sodium curing agent for achieving salt reduction in dry-cured meat products.

Lipidomics reveals the relationship between lipid oxidation and flavor formation of basic amnio acids participated Low-Sodium cured large yellow croaker

The effects of basic amino acids on lipid oxidation and the formation of volatile compound in low-sodium cured large yellow croaker were investigated. Basic amino acids contribute a lot in inhibiting the degradation of phospholipids, especially l-lysine. Lipid oxidation was also inhibited by basic amino acids, and the total oxidation of groups could be sorted as low-sodium (LS) > control (C) > l-Histidine participated LS group (LS-His) > l-Arginine participated LS group (LS-Arg) > l-lysine participated LS group (LS-Lys). PC 18:1/20:5, PC 16:0/18:1, triacylglycerol (TG) 16:1/20:5/22:6, etc., were found to be key differential lipid metabolites, and 1-propanol, 2-methyl, gamma-hexalactone, etc. were recognized as key differential volatile compounds. The results of correlation analysis showed that alcohols and esters were positively correlated with TG molecules composed of saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids. These findings provided new insights into the relationship between flavor formation and the degradation and oxidation of lipids.

Novel Approaches to Improve Meat Products' Healthy Characteristics: A Review on Lipids, Salts, and Nitrites

Meat products are a staple of many diets around the world, but they have been subject to criticism due to their potential negative impact on human health. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in developing novel approaches to improve the healthy characteristics of meat products, with a particular focus on reducing the levels of harmful salts, lipids, and nitrites. This review aims to provide an overview of the latest research on the various methods being developed to address these issues, including the use of alternative salts, lipid-reducing techniques, and natural nitrite alternatives. By exploring these innovative approaches, we can gain a better understanding of the potential for improving the nutritional value of meat products, while also meeting the demands of consumers who are increasingly concerned about their health and well-being.

Perspective of sodium reduction based on endogenous proteases via the strategy of sodium replacement in conjunction with mediated-curing

NaCl is the main curing agent in dry-cured meat products, and a large amount of NaCl addition leads to high salt content of final products. Salt content and composition are important factors affecting the activity of endogenous proteases, which in turn could affect proteolysis as well as the quality of dry-cured meat products. With the increasing emphasis on the relationship between diet and health, reducing sodium content without sacrificing quality and safety of products is a great challenge for dry-cured meat industry. In this review, the change of endogenous proteases activity during processing, the potential relationship between sodium reduction strategy, endogenous proteases activity, and quality were summarized and discussed. The results showed that sodium replacement strategy and mediated-curing had a complementary advantage in influencing endogenous proteases activity. In addition, mediated-curing had the potential to salvage the negative effects of sodium substitution by affecting endogenous proteases. Based on the results, a sodium reduction strategy that sodium replacement in conjunction with mediated-curing based on endogenous proteases was proposed for the future perspective.

Effects of Partial Replacement of NaCl with KCl on Protein Properties and Quality Attributes of Lightly Salted Tilapias Fillets

The evolution of quality attributes and their association with the protein properties of lightly tilapias fillets salted with different replacement proportions of NaCl with KCl (0%, 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 100%) at the same ionic strength were investigated. KCl replacements using optimal substitution (50% of KCl) contributed to maintaining desired quality properties. Further, KCl replacement (about 50~70% of KCl) led to the insolubilization and weakened stability of myofibrillar proteins, represented by the unfolding of the myofibrillar protein, increased surface hydrophilic points, and strengthened internal protein-protein interaction, resulting in the structurally reinforced hardness and lower water-holding capacity. Excessive replacement (more than 70% of KCl) showed apparent deterioration in taste quality, coloration, and hardness received by sensory sensation caused by immoderate hydrolysis and aggravated oxidation of the myofibrillar protein. In this sense, insights into KCl replacements on protein properties might be a positive approach to improving quality attributes of lightly salted tilapias fillets.

Insights into the flavor perception and enhancement of sodium-reduced fermented foods: A review

Salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is a vital ingredient in fermented foods, which affects their safety, texture, and flavor characteristics. Recently, the demand for reduced-sodium fermented foods has increased, as consumers have become more health-conscious. However, reducing sodium content in fermented foods may negatively affect flavor perception, which is a critical quality attribute of fermented foods for both the food industry and consumers. This review summarizes the role of salt in the human body and foods and its role in the flavor perception of fermented foods. Current sodium reduction strategies used in the food industry mainly include the direct stealth reduction of NaCl, substituting NaCl with other chloride salts, and structure modification of NaCl. The odor-induced saltiness enhancement, application of starter cultures, flavor enhancers, and non-thermal processing technology are potential strategies for flavor compensation of sodium-reduced fermented foods. However, reducing sodium in fermented food is challenging due to its specific role in flavor perception (e.g., promoting saltiness and volatile compound release from food matrices, inhibiting bitterness, and changing microflora structure). Therefore, multiple challenges must be addressed in order to improve the flavor of low-sodium fermented foods. Future studies should thus focus on the combination of several strategies to compensate for the deficiencies in flavor resulting from sodium reduction.

Characterization of Quality Properties in Spoiled Mianning Ham

Deep spoilage is a cyclical and costly problem for the meat industry. Mianning ham is a famous dry-cured meat product in Sichuan, China. The aim of this work was to investigate the physicochemical characteristics, sources of odor, and associated microorganisms that cause spoilage of Mianning ham. High-throughput sequencing and solid-phase microextraction–gas-chromatography (SPME-GC-MS) techniques were used to characterize the physicochemical properties, microbial community structure, and volatile compounds of spoiled Mianning ham and to compare it with normal Mianning ham. The results showed that spoiled ham typically had higher moisture content, water activity (a_w), and pH, and lower salt content. The dominant bacterial phylum detected in deeply spoiled ham was Firmicutes (95.4%). The dominant bacterial genus was Clostridium_sensu_stricto_2 (92.01%), the dominant fungal phylum was Ascomycota (98.48%), and the dominant fungal genus was Aspergillus (84.27%). A total of 57 volatile flavor substances were detected in deeply spoiled ham, including 11 aldehydes, 2 ketones, 6 alcohols, 10 esters, 20 hydrocarbons, 6 acids, and 2 other compounds. Hexanal (279.607 ± 127.265 μg/kg) was the most abundant in deeply spoiled ham, followed by Butanoic acid (266.885 ± 55.439 μg/kg) and Nonanal (165.079 ± 63.923 μg/kg). Clostridium_sensu_stricto_2 promoted the formation of five main flavor compounds, Heptanal, (E)-2-Octenal, 2-Nonanone, Hexanal, and Nonanal, in deeply spoiled ham by correlation analysis of microbial and volatile flavor substances.

Effect of Salt Reduction on the Quality of Boneless Dry-Cured Ham from Iberian and White Commercially Crossed Pigs

Iberian dry-cured ham has great value in a traditional Spanish diet, although experts have recommended its consumption should be reduced because of its high salt content and link to cardiovascular diseases. Eighteen boneless Iberian hams (RIB), eighteen boneless white commercially crossed pig hams (RWC), and eighteen traditionally salted and processed Iberian hams (TIB) were manufactured to check whether the breed (RIB vs. RWC) or the processing (RIB vs. TIB) affects their physical–chemical and sensory characteristics. Moisture, protein, total nitrogen, nonprotein nitrogen, proteolysis index, NaCl, and ash contents were higher in RWC, contrary to the fat values, which were more than double in RIB. All macrominerals, except Ca, were affected by the processing stage and breed, whereas only the micromineral Zn was higher in RWC. The breed did not affect the free amino acid content; however, the total content was slightly higher in RWC. Regarding the manufacturing process, the deboning of RIB allowed the reduction of salt by over 30%. However, the microbiological stability was not affected, resulting in a safe product. Although deboning and salt reduction significantly affect the hardness, adhesiveness, deformation, and elasticity of dry-cured hams, consumers value all sensory parameters with higher scores in RIB.

Physicochemical, Nutritional, Microbiological, and Sensory Qualities of Chicken Burgers Reformulated with Mediterranean Plant Ingredients and Health-Promoting Compounds

The quality of chicken burgers reformulated by the partial replacement of meat by Mediterranean plant ingredients and enriched with peculiar amounts of n-3 PUFAs, Mg, Fe, Se, and folic acid, was evaluated in comparison to conventional chicken burgers. Specifically, two types of burger were developed, namely the "Sicilian burger"-based on cherry tomato and rosemary-and the "Mediterranean burger"-with basil leaves and thyme essential oil-every recipe being differentially functionalized according to the nutritional requirements of consumers, such as children, pregnant women and elderly. Mediterranean ingredients were responsible for different pH, color, and cooking loss between conventional and functional burgers. Except for n-3 PUFAs resulting poorly fortified, the functionalization with Mg, Fe, Se, and vitamin B9 was successful in all products. Considering the target consumer categories, the daily consumption of the functional burger may assure an intake of Mg, Fe, and Se equal, respectively, to 37.31-59.90%, 17.76-46.81%, and 27.20-50.05%, and a cover of vitamin B9 of 31.98-48.31% of the relative population reference intakes. Fortified products kept a good microbiological quality during 5 days of refrigerated storage, and, according to the sensorial descriptive analysis and the hedonic test, they showed a higher acceptability than conventional burgers.

Effect of Pig Breed and Processing Stage on the Physicochemical Properties of Dry-Cured Loin

This study investigated the effect of pig breeds on the quality characteristics of dry-cured loins according to the processing stage. Physicochemical properties of 20 dry-cured processed loins with the different pig breeds [Berkshire vs Landrace×Yorkshire× Duroc (LYD; n=10)] and different processing stages (raw, curing, dry-ripened 15 day and 30 day) were analyzed. The pig breed influenced moisture content and pH with values of 59% and 53%, and 6.17 and 5.94, for Berkshire and LYD, respectively, on day 30. Dry-cured loins made with Berkshire showed higher hardness and lower cohesiveness than that of the LYD (p<0.05). Redness and yellowness were higher for Berkshire than LYD (p<0.05). Lipid oxidation and lightness did not affect by pig breed during processing stages (p>0.05). However, sulfhydryl content was significantly higher in Berkshire compared to the LYD after dry-ripened for 15 days (p<0.05). The concentration of total free amino acids and fatty acids was higher for Berkshire during all processing stages (p<0.05). Berkshire may be better quality due to its high moisture content and pH compared to the LYD.

Effect of NaCl Replacement by other Salts on the Quality of Bísaro Pork Sausages (PGI Chouriça de Vinhais)

Concerned about the trend to reduce salt consumption, the meat industry has been increasing the strategies to produce and commercialize products where the reduction or even the replacement of NaCl is an important goal. The aim of this study was to test the effect of partial NaCl replacement by KCl and Sub4Salt^® on the quality of pork sausages. Three different formulations (NaCl + KCl, NaCl + Sub4Salt^®, and KCl + Sub4Salt^®) were considered and compared to the control (2% NaCl). Physicochemical properties, chemical composition, and microbiological and sensory characteristics were evaluated. The replacement of NaCl did not affect pH, water activity (a_w) or its chemical composition after eight or 16 days ripening time, while a significant sodium reduction was achieved. The oxidation index expressed in TBARS was also not affected by the NaCl substitution and varied between 0.01 to 0.04 of malonaldehyde (MDA) per kg of sample. Similarly, the NaCl replacement did not change the microbiological quality of the sausages, and the production of healthier meat sausages had also no significant effect on their sensory characteristics. Therefore, according to the results obtained, it is viable and a good strategy for the meat industry to produce “reduced sodium content” sausages without affecting their traditional quality.

Effect of NaCl Partial Replacement by Chloride Salts on Physicochemical Characteristics, Volatile Compounds and Sensorial Properties of Dry-Cured Deer Cecina

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of NaCl replacement in the physicochemical quality and volatile and sensorial profile of dry-cured deer cecina. Two salt mixtures were used as NaCl substitute: mixture I (30% NaCl-70% KCl) and mixture II (30% NaCl-50% KCl-15% CaCl₂-5% MgCl₂). Regarding the physicochemical parameters, only ash content, pH and L* values were affected by NaCl replacement. However, lipid oxidation was affected by NaCl replacement. The greatest thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values were observed in the control batch (3.28 mg MDA/kg). The partial replacement of NaCl by salt mixtures affected (p < 0.001) Ca, K, Mg, and Na content. The total amounts of free fatty acids and free amino acids were not affected (p > 0.05) by NaCl replacement. Concerning the volatile compounds, control samples presented the highest concentrations of furans (p < 0.01), while samples produced with mixture II had the lowest (p < 0.001) amounts of esters and acids. Our results indicated that all sensory attributes of the attribute map were affected (generalized procrustes analysis (GPA) explained 100% of the total variability among treatments). Considering the results obtained from the sensorial analysis, only mixture II reduced the overall acceptance and preference of consumers. Control attained significantly (p < 0.05) greater scores of acceptance and preference than mixture II despite the higher TBARS content.

Effects of partial NaCl substitution with high-temperature ripening on proteolysis and volatile compounds during process of Chinese dry-cured lamb ham

The effects of partial NaCl substitution combined with high-temperature ripening on the proteolysis and formation of volatile compounds in dry-cured lamb ham was investigated. Two salt treatments, I (0% KCl + 100% NaCl) and II (25% KCl + 75% NaCl), were considered. Although some studies have analyzed the influences of salt substitution on volatile compounds of dry-cured ham, no studies have evaluated lamb ham produced in China. Intensifying the high-temperature ripening lead to an increase in the formation of flavors generated by the Maillard reaction and Strecker degradation in both treatments, also, had a positive influence on proteolysis index and content of total free amino acids during the ripening stage. The application of 25% KCl did not influence the formation of volatiles during curing stage, however, there were more volatiles came from amino acids degradation in the final products with 25% KCl. Therefore, sodium reduction combined with high-temperature ripening may be an alternative method to manufacture Chinese dry-cured lamb hams.

Strategies to Improve Meat Products' Quality

Meat products represent an important component of the human diet, their consumption registering a global increase over the last few years. These foodstuffs constitute a good source of energy and some nutrients, such as essential amino acids, high biological value proteins, minerals like iron, zinc, selenium, manganese and B-complex vitamins, especially vitamin B12. On the other hand, nutritionists have associated high consumption of processed meat with an increased risk of several diseases. Researchers and processed meat producers are involved in finding methods to eliminate nutritional deficiencies and potentially toxic compounds, to obtain healthier products and at the same time with no affecting the sensorial quality and safety of the meat products. The present review aims to summarize the newest trends regarding the most important methods that can be applied to obtain high-quality products. Nutritional enrichment with natural bioactive plant compounds (antioxidants, dietary fibers) or probiotics, reduction of harmful components (salt, nitrate/nitrite, N-nitrosamines) and the use of alternative technologies (high-pressure processing, cold plasma, ultrasounds) are the most used current strategies to accomplish this aim.

Low-sodium dry-cured rabbit leg: A novel meat product with healthier properties

Dry-cured rabbit legs were produced with a 50% reduction or replacement of NaCl by KCl and with the addition of monosodium glutamate (MG). The effect of this reformulation on technological, nutritional, and sensory characteristics was evaluated. The sodium reformulation did not show a great impact on Aw, pH, weight loss, and volatile profile of the samples. The samples presented high protein (31.5 to 36.1%) and low fat contents (3.2 to 5.7%). In addition, all essential amino acids presented an amino acid score greater than 1.0. The reformulated samples showed a sodium reduction of 46.2% while the addition of KCl to the formulations provided a healthy Na/K ratio. Oleic acid was the major fatty acid (FA) (31.3% of total FA) and healthy lipid indexes were observed for all samples. Finally, the addition of MG was effective to compensate for the sensory defects caused by sodium reformulation.

Effect of high-pressure processing and chemical composition on lipid oxidation, aminopeptidase activity and free amino acids of Serrano dry-cured ham

Lipid oxidation and proteolysis are essential processes in Serrano dry-cured ham quality. The influence of high pressure processing (HPP) at 600 MPa for 6 min on lipid oxidation, aminopeptidase (AP) activities and free amino acids (FAA) in ripened Serrano hams of different chemical composition after 5 months at 4 °C were studied. HPP increased lipid peroxidation indexes. Composition influenced both indexes, with higher levels in hams of medium or high intramuscular fat (IMF) content and in hams of low or medium salt content or salt-in-lean ratio. HPP lowered AP activities by more than 50%. Composition also affected AP activities, with lower levels in hams of low a_w, high IMF content, low salt content or low salt-in-lean ratio. At the end of refrigerated storage, HPP only affected Arg and Tyr levels. Many of the individual FAA reached higher levels in hams of low a_w, medium or high IMF content, low or medium salt content, or low or medium salt-in-lean ratio.

Effects of partial replacement of NaCl with KCl on bacterial communities and physicochemical characteristics of typical Chinese bacon

This work aimed to determine the effects of partial substitution of NaCl with 0% (control), 30%, 50%, and 70% of KCl on the bacterial communities, proteolysis and lipid oxidation of Chinese bacon during processing. The proportion of genus Lactobacillus increased from 22.45% (fresh meat) to 72.78%, 81.64%, 76.53% and 85.63% at the end of processing for 0%, 30%, 50% and 70% KCl replacement samples, respectively. During the processing, Lactobacillus gradually became the dominant one, and higher the KCl ratio, more rapid was the process. After salting, the TBARS of control was markedly higher (P < 0.05) than that of the others, while a similar lipid oxidation level (P > 0.05) was observed at the end of processing for different groups. After salting, there was no difference in total free amino acids (TFAA) content among four treatments (P > 0.05), whereas KCl replacement samples shared significantly higher (P < 0.05) values than control at the end of processing. Redundancy analysis and Pearson correlation showed positive correlation between Lactobacillus versus TBARS and TFAA. Partial replacement of NaCl with KCl could, directly or subsequently by promoting the growth of Lactobacillus, influence proteolysis and lipid oxidation over the manufacturing process.

Effect of salt mixture on flavor of reduced-sodium restructured bacon with ultrasound treatment

Flavor loss from sodium reduction is a large challenge faced in the meat industry. The effects of salt mixture (KCl: CaCl2 = 1:1, w/w) content (0%-1.0%) on flavor of reduced-sodium (1.5% NaCl) restructured bacon with ultrasound treatment (UT, 600 w for 30 min) were investigated. The results showed that 0.5% salt mixture (0.25% KCl and 0.25% CaCl2) could significantly (p < .05) enhance the lipid oxidation, the protein oxidation, and the formation of free amino acids of reduced-sodium UT-restructured bacon and could also markedly (p < .05) improve its flavor and the overall quality of sensory evaluation via promoting the release of five kinds of volatile phenolic compounds (o-cresol, m-cresol, 2-methoxy-phenol, 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol, and 2-methoxy-5-methylphenol) and the formation of five kinds of volatile aldehyde compounds (hexanal, nonanal, decanal, furfural, and 5-methyl furfural). It is interesting to understand the mechanism for the effect of salt mixture on flavor and to efficiently develop a technique for improving the flavor of reduced-sodium products in the meat industry.

Challenges to reduce or replace NaCl by chloride salts in meat products made from whole pieces - a review

NaCl is fundamental for the development of the physico-chemical, sensorial and microbiological stability in meat products made from whole pieces such as dry-cured lacón, loin, ham, bacon, jerked beef, and pastirma). The substitution of NaCl by other chloride salts (KCl, CaCl₂ and MgCl₂), in order to minimize changes in the processing steps and insertion of new ingredients, is a major challenge for the elaboration of salted meat products in the context of increasing awareness among consumer about sodium consumption and health. This review aims to discuss the potential use of binary, ternary and quaternary salting mixtures in the processing of salted meat products and their effects on microbiological evolution and safety, sensory properties, oxidative reactions on proteins and lipid, and proteolysis and lipolysis reactions. More specifically, the substitution of NaCl by other chloride salts can influence the growth of microorganisms, the formation of toxic compounds, progression of enzymatic and oxidative reactions, and the sensory attributes. Scientific evidences from a food technological point of view, support the use of KCl to partially replace NaCl while major advances/more sophisticated strategies are still necessary to effectively introduce CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ as NaCl replacers. Moreover, further studies regarding the shelf-life and economic problems of the alternatively salted products are still necessary.

Evaluation by NIRS technology of curing process of ham with low sodium content

NIR spectroscopy combined with chemometric methods has been used to develop a prediction models of the most influential parameters in curing process of two types of hams (140 hams) using different salting techniques, lean hams salted on a tray and fatty hams in a tub, in which sodium is partially replaced. Spectral data were examined by principal component analysis and cross-validated calibration equations were developed using partial-least squares regression. Calibration errors for each parameter, obtained from cross validation (RMSECV), were similar to those obtained by reference method. For lean and fatty hams the RMSECV values were: Moisture 0.78% and 0.80; Fat 2.5 and 1.2%; Protein 0.7 and 1.7%; water activity 0.008 and 0.006; Proteolysis Index 1.6 and 1.7%; Sodium 0.11 and 0.10%; and Potassium 0.04 and 0.10. Results allow the prediction of the parameters involved in ham curing process, demonstrating the viability of the proposed method for the control and monitoring of the different stages until obtaining the final product.

Effect of NaCl replacement by other chloride salts on physicochemical parameters, proteolysis and lipolysis of dry-cured foal "cecina"

This study was proposed following the strategy of the meat sector to reduce sodium intake through applying different salting processes instead of the traditional method. Therefore, the influence of two salting treatments (with 50% and 55% of NaCl replacement by other chloride salts) on the chemical, physicochemical, proteolysis and lipolysis of foal cecinas was evaluated and compared to those cecinas salted with a traditional procedure. Regarding physicochemical parameters, cecinas treated with CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ increased the lipid oxidation and luminosity, while decreased the redness. The highest contents of protein and the lowest of moisture were obtained in cecinas salted with 50% KCl, while the NaCl content was dramatically reduced by the experimental batches (4.25 and 3.40 g/100 g) in comparison with control samples (7.73 g/100 g). The values of texture (hardness) did not reflect differences among batches. The content of free amino acids increased with NaCl replacement. In fact, data suggests that NaCl had more inhibitory power on the proteolytic enzymes than the other salts. On the contrary, lipolytic phenomenon showed lower differences among treatments (mainly individual PUFA). However, these variations could be related to the higher oxidation observed in the samples with NaCl replacement. On the other hand, the substitution of NaCl by other salts had an important influence in mineral contents. The main objective, which is the reduction of sodium intake, was achieved. Nevertheless, a sensory study should carry out to observe how aforementioned changes affect the organoleptic quality of the final product and the consumer's acceptability.

Hydrolysis and oxidation of protein and lipids in dry-salted grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) as affected by partial substitution of NaCl with KCl and amino acids

To obtain healthier meat products with reduced Na content, the salt substitute containing l-histidine and l-lysine was compared with NaCl in the hydrolysis and oxidation of protein and lipids of dry-salted fish during processing. Compared with NaCl-treated fish (S-F), salt substitute treated fish (SS-F) had a lower Na content, higher moisture content and lower hardness. Sensory analysis showed that salt substitute didn't affect the acceptability of salted fish. The free fatty acids of SS-F treated fish had a slight tendency toward lipolysis at the end of processing. Additionally, the conjugated diene value, lipoxygenase activity and malondialdehyde value were lower in the ventral and dorsal muscles for the SS-F treatment. Meanwhile, the protein carbonyls and thiol groups were significantly decreased as cathepsin B and L activities and FAA content were increased in the ventral and dorsal muscles for the SS-F treatment. l-Histidine and l-lysine accelerated the hydrolysis (inhibit the oxidation) of protein and lipids in dry-salted grass carp, illustrating that l-histidine and l-lysine will be a positive approach to develop healthier meat products.

Hydrothermal Carbonate Mineralization, Calcretization, and Microbial Diagenesis Associated with Multiple Sedimentary Phases in the Upper Cretaceous Bekhme Formation, Kurdistan Region-Iraq

Hydrothermal diagenesis during the Zagros Orogeny produced three phases of saddle dolomites (SD1, SD2, and SD3) and two phases of blocky calcites (CI and CII) in the studied sections of Bekhme Formation (Fm) (Campanian–Maastrichtian). Field observations, as well as petrographic, cathodoluminescence (CL), Scanning Elecron Microscope (SEM), and oxygen–carbon isotope analyses, indicated that the unit went through multiple submergence–emergence phases after or during hydrothermal diagenesis. These phases resulted in a characteristic calcretized 2–6-m-thick layer within the Bekhme Fm. Several pedogenic textures (e.g., alveolar, pisolite, and laminar fabric microfeatures) were observed. Strong evidence of microbial alteration and diagenesis in this formation brings new insights into its depositional history. The microbial activities developed on the original mineral surface were associated with a great variety of processes including dissolution, re-precipitation, replacement, open-space fillings, microporosity development, grain bridging, and micritization. Probable oxalate pseudomorphs embedded in these fabrics and regular filaments preserved along crystal boundaries suggest the activity of fungi, while frequent coccoidal, rod-like, and chain-like forms attached to the surfaces of dolomitic and calcitic crystals point to bacterial colonization. Extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) was often visible with fungal and bacterial forms. These features, together with stable isotope data, invoke that near-surface conditions occurred sporadically in the Bekhme Fm after the first generation of hydrothermal dolomitization. These new findings allow recognition of unreported sedimentological phases based on new evidence in the Spelek–Sulauk area during the Upper Cretaceous.

Effects of red glasswort as sodium chloride substitute on the physicochemical properties of pork loin ham

Objective

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of red glasswort (RG) (Salicornia herbacea L.) curing on the physicochemical, textural and sensory properties of cooked pork loin ham (M. longissimus thoracis et lumborum).

Methods

All treatments were cured with different salt and RG powder levels. RG0 treatment was prepared with only 4% NaCl (w/w) as a control, and RG25, 3% NaCl:1% RG (w/w); RG50, 2% NaCl:2% RG (w/w); RG75, 1% NaCl:3% RG (w/w); RG100, 0% NaCl:4% RG (w/w) treatments were prepared sequentially. All samples were individually vacuum packaged in polyethylene bags and stored for 7 d at 3°C±1°C.

Results

The results showed that as the rate of RG substitution increased, pH value, redness, myofibrillar protein solubility, and myofibrillar fragmentation index increased (p<0.05), but salt concentration and shear force decreased (p<0.05). However, there were no significant differences in cooking loss and moisture content. In terms of sensory evaluation, RG100 exhibited higher scores in tenderness and juiciness than RG0 (p<0.05).

Conclusion

The partial substitution of NaCl by RG could improve the physicochemical properties, textural and sensory characteristics of cooked pork loin. Therefore, it is suggested that RG as a natural salt replacer could be an effective ingredient for developing low-sodium cured hams.

Vacuum-aided production of low sodium ready-to-eat charque

The objective of this work was to evaluate the influence of vacuum application and partial replacement of NaCl with KCl in the manufacturing of ready-to-eat charque with low sodium content. The application of four vacuum pulses (4VP) resulted in greater salt reduction and lesser water gain when compared to the desalting process conducted at atmospheric pressure (Patm). In addition, the vacuum-assisted desalting contributed to a more homogeneous salt distribution in the product. The time required for the samples to reach an approximate NaCl concentration of 2.5% in the desalting stage was 48 h, regardless of the process conditions. The initial Na⁺ concentration was reduced by 50% with the replacement of NaCl with KCl in both process conditions (either Patm or 4VP) when compared to charque traditionally desalted.

Impact of partial substitution of NaCl by KCl, and MgCl2 on physicochemical and sensory properties of cooked sausages during storage

Objective

To determine the effect of three salting treatments (control, 100% NaCl; T1, 60% NaCl and 40% KCl; T2, 50% NaCl, 40% KCl, and 10% MgCl₂) on meat quality of sausages during storage.

Methods

Various types of curing salts were used for processing of salamis. Physico-chemical and sensory evaluation of the sausages were analyzed during 4 weeks of ripening.

Results

The pH values and salinity contents were the highest in control, while they were the lowest in T2 at 4 weeks (p<0.05). Control and T1 had less thiobarbituric acid reactive substances than T2 at 2 weeks (p<0.05). The volatile basic nitrogen levels in T1 were similar to control and lower than T2 at 2 and 4 weeks (p<0.05). Moreover, T1 samples were redder and had a higher saturation index (C*) value when compared to the others. T2 showed greater hardness, gumminess and chewiness when compared with the control (p<0.05). Control was comparable to T1 for sensory attributes.

Conclusion

Sodium chloride may be partially substituted with potassium chloride without negatively influencing meat quality of sausages up to 4 weeks of storage. These results could help to develop low-sodium sausages.