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Mörlein D, Mörlein J, Gerlach C, Strack M, Kranz B, Brüggemann DA. An overlooked compound contributing to boar taint and consumer rejection of meat products: 2-Aminoacetophenone. Meat Sci 2024; 213:109497. [PMID: 38508078 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2024.109497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Mainly skatole and androstenone have so far been considered causative for boar taint. Using a mixed methods approach it is shown herein that 2-aminoacetophenone (AAP) affects human perception of pork, too. We explored the importance of AAP in four trials: (1) chemical analyses of 221 fat samples from boar carcasses revealed that AAP occurs, on average, in similar quantities as skatole while the levels of androstenone being four-fold. (2) ranking tests with mixtures of androstenone and/or skatole with AAP presented on smell strips to trained sensory assessors showed that AAP amplifies boar odour. In order to study AAP's importance in meat products, four experimental variants of Lyon type sausage were then produced: a control, a product with added skatole (0.075 μg/g fat tissue), with added AAP (0.075 μg/g fat tissue), and with addition of both compounds. (3) results of a consumer discrimination test panel (n = 71) showed that, when added to a sausage system, APP causes a sensory difference of similar size as skatole while the methodology chosen affects the effect size: tetrad tests proved to be more sensitive than duo trio difference tests, in the tetrad test a sensory difference expressed as d' (d-prime) of 1.0 was reached. (4) a hedonic consumer test (n = 121) finally revealed that APP decreased consumer liking of the APP-spiked sausage - even to a stronger extent than skatole. APP caused significant drops in smell, taste, mouth-feel, after-taste and overall liking in Lyoner. Overall the findings suggest that, in the context of pork meat, AAP is of similar olfactory importance as skatole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Johanna Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Germany
| | | | | | - Bertolt Kranz
- Max Rubner-Institut für Ernährung und Lebensmittel, Institut für Sicherheit und Qualität bei Fleisch, Kulmbach, Germany
| | - Dagmar A Brüggemann
- Max Rubner-Institut für Ernährung und Lebensmittel, Institut für Sicherheit und Qualität bei Fleisch, Kulmbach, Germany
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2
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Belal SA, Jung JH. The results of meat quality traits and sensory characteristics according to the concentration of androstenone in uncastrated pigs. JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2024; 66:387-397. [PMID: 38628681 PMCID: PMC11016739 DOI: 10.5187/jast.2024.e34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Pork quality is determined by several attributes, among which odor and taste are the utmost significant. Therefore, this study was aimed to assess the effects of boar odor hormone concentration on the quality traits and sensory acceptability of pork. A total twenty-six (26) non-castrated 3-way crossbred (Landrace × Yorkshire × Duroc) pigs were selected with an average body weight (ABW) 115.6 kg before to slaughter. The three treatment groups (low, medium and high) were divided according to the androstenone concentration. In experiment 1, for meat quality traits carcass was selected based on androstenone concentration: low (LC, 0.64-0.69 μg/g, n = 9), medium (MC, 0.70-0.99 μg/g, n = 7) and high (HC, 1.00-1.69 μg/g, n = 10). In experiment 2, for sensory evaluation carcasses were also selected based on the abovementioned conditions. Results revealed that androstenone concentration not effect on proximate components, meat quality traits and fatty acids except palmitoleic acid. Sensory evaluation data showed that boar taint and meat boar taint were significantly increased in a concentration-dependent manner from low to high, whereas, gravy and meat flavor preference were significantly increased in LC group than HC group. In addition, correlation analysis showed that boar taint and meat boar taint were positively, and gravy and meat flavor preference were negatively correlated with boar taint hormones. In essence, our findings indicate that androstenone concentration had no effect on meat qualities, but a high concentration of androstenone had a negative effect on the sensory characteristics in uncastrated pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shah Ahmed Belal
- Department of Animal Biotechnology,
Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Korea
- Department of Poultry Science, Sylhet
Agricultural University, Sylhet 3100, Bangladesh
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3
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Burgeon C, Font-i-Furnols M, Garrido MD, Linares MB, Brostaux Y, Sabeña G, Fauconnier ML, Panella-Riera N. Can sensory boar taint levels be explained by fatty acid composition and emitted volatile organic compounds in addition to androstenone and skatole content? Meat Sci 2022; 195:108985. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2022.108985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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4
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Developing and Understanding Olfactory Evaluation of Boar Taint. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10091684. [PMID: 32957708 PMCID: PMC7552758 DOI: 10.3390/ani10091684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Boar taint is an unpleasant smell and taste of fat of uncastrated male pigs. Growing welfare concerns are pushing towards a ban on the common practice of castrating male piglets as a means to prevent boar taint. This pushes the pork industry to apply alternative strategies to prevent the consumption of tainted of meat. Detecting boar taint is an important aspect of solving this problem, both as a control strategy in slaughterhouses and in boar taint research. This study provides a training protocol and scoring method as well as recommendations for evaluating boar taint. Abstract Trained expert panels are used routinely in boar taint research, with varying protocols for training of panelists and scoring methods. We describe a standardized process for training and scoring, to contribute to standardize the olfactory detection of boar taint. Three experiments are described in which we (1) evaluate the importance of training and the effect of the previous sample, (2) determine detection thresholds on strips and in fat for our panel, and (3) test priming panelists before boar taint evaluation. For the final evaluation of boar taint, we propose a consistent three-person evaluation scoring on a 0–4 scale using a final mean score of 0.5 as the cut-off for boar taint. This gave an optimal sensitivity of 0.81 and a specificity of 0.56 compared to chemical cut-offs. Even limited training proved useful, but priming assessors with strips did not improve the evaluation of fat samples. Detection thresholds were higher in fat compared to strips, except for indole. We recommend panelists to always smell a non-tainted control sample after a tainted one as a ‘reset’ mechanism, before continuing. For longitudinal studies, we additionally advise to set up an expert panel with a fixed number of assessors performing each evaluation in duplicate.
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Marro P, Bauer A, Stefanski V, Weiler U. Effect of processing on the concentrations of boar taint compounds skatole and androstenone in different types of sausage. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.13580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Marro
- Behavioral Physiology of Livestock, Institute of Animal Science; University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 17; 70599 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Aneka Bauer
- Department of Safety and Quality of Meat; Max Rubner Institute, E.-C.-Baumann-Str. 20; 95326 Kulmbach Germany
| | - Volker Stefanski
- Behavioral Physiology of Livestock, Institute of Animal Science; University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 17; 70599 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Ulrike Weiler
- Behavioral Physiology of Livestock, Institute of Animal Science; University of Hohenheim, Garbenstr. 17; 70599 Stuttgart Germany
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6
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Mancini MC, Menozzi D, Arfini F. Immunocastration: Economic implications for the pork supply chain and consumer perception. An assessment of existing research. Livest Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2017.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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7
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Wauters J, Verplanken K, Vercruysse V, Ampe B, Aluwé M, Vanhaecke L. Sensory evaluation of boar meat products by trained experts. Food Chem 2017; 237:516-524. [PMID: 28764028 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.05.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Rearing entire male pigs, one of the alternatives for surgical castration, entails the possible occurrence of boar taint. This study aimed at the investigation of the acceptability of meat from entire male pigs in 8 different meat products (cutlets, bacon, blade loin, tenderloin, dry fermented sausage, cooked ham, dry-cured ham and minced meat) by trained assessors. Generally, the sensory evaluation of meat samples was affected the most in the androstenone (AEON) group, indicating that AEON is the most offensive boar taint compound for sensitive assessors. Differences between the meat products showed the highest potential for processing tainted meat in cold meat products, which was most likely due to the serving temperature on the one hand and production-related influences on the other. However, more insights regarding reducing and masking effects of production-related factors on boar taint are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jella Wauters
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Kaat Verplanken
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Vicky Vercruysse
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Bart Ampe
- Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, Scheldeweg 68, B-9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - Marijke Aluwé
- Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, Scheldeweg 68, B-9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - Lynn Vanhaecke
- Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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8
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Meinert L, Lund B, Bejerholm C, Aaslyng MD. Distribution of skatole and androstenone in the pig carcass correlated to sensory characteristics. Meat Sci 2017; 127:51-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2017.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Trautmann J, Meier-Dinkel L, Gertheiss J, Mörlein D. Noise and accustomation: A pilot study of trained assessors' olfactory performance. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0174697. [PMID: 28380041 PMCID: PMC5381871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
While recent studies suggest an influence of noise on olfactory performance, it is unclear as to what extent the influence varies between subjects who are accustomed to noise and those who are not. Two groups of panelists were selected: a University panel usually working under silent conditions and an abattoir panel usually working on the slaughter line with abattoir noise. Odor discrimination, odor identification, and odor detection thresholds were studied. Furthermore, a sensory quality control task using 40 boar samples was performed. All tests were accomplished both with and without extraneous noise recorded at an abattoir (70 dB) using headphones. Contrary to the researchers’ expectations, abattoir noise hardly affected the olfactory tests nor was the quality control task impaired. Abattoir noise did not influence the perceived intensity of boar taint and the classification results of the testers, regardless of whether they were accustomed to such noise or not. The results indicate that sensory quality control can be conducted in a manufacturing environment with constant noise without diminishing the assessors’ performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Trautmann
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Lisa Meier-Dinkel
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Institute of Applied Stochastics and Operations Research, Clausthal, University of Technology, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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10
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Jacob CC, Dervilly-Pinel G, Deceuninck Y, Gicquiau A, Chevillon P, Bonneau M, Le Bizec B. Urinary signature of pig carcasses with boar taint by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 34:218-227. [PMID: 27885948 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1265152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Boar taint is an offensive odour that can occur while cooking pork or pork products and is identified in some uncastrated male pigs that have reached puberty. It is widely held that boar taint is the result of the accumulation in back fat of two malodorous compounds: androstenone and skatole. The purpose of this study is to assess a mass spectrometry-based metabolomics strategy to investigate the metabolic profile of urine samples from pig carcasses presenting low (untainted) and high (tainted) levels of androstenone and skatole in back fat. Urine samples were analysed by LC-ESI(+)-HRMS. Discrimination between tainted and untainted animals was observed by the application of multivariate statistical analysis, which allowed candidate urinary biomarkers to be highlighted. These urinary metabolites were positively correlated to androstenone and skatole levels in back fat. Therefore, the study suggests that the measurement of these urinary metabolites might provide information with regard to androstenone and skatole levels in live pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina C Jacob
- a LUNAM ONIRIS, École nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique , Laboratoire d'Étude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les aliments (LABERCA) , Nantes , France
| | - Gaud Dervilly-Pinel
- a LUNAM ONIRIS, École nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique , Laboratoire d'Étude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les aliments (LABERCA) , Nantes , France
| | - Yoann Deceuninck
- a LUNAM ONIRIS, École nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique , Laboratoire d'Étude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les aliments (LABERCA) , Nantes , France
| | - Audrey Gicquiau
- a LUNAM ONIRIS, École nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique , Laboratoire d'Étude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les aliments (LABERCA) , Nantes , France
| | | | - Michel Bonneau
- c INRA-Agrocampus-Ouest, UMR 1348 PEGASE , Saint Gilles , France
| | - Bruno Le Bizec
- a LUNAM ONIRIS, École nationale vétérinaire, agroalimentaire et de l'alimentation Nantes-Atlantique , Laboratoire d'Étude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les aliments (LABERCA) , Nantes , France
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11
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Meier-Dinkel L, Strack M, Höinghaus K, Mörlein D. Consumers dislike boar taint related off-flavours in pork chops regardless of a meal context. Meat Sci 2016; 122:119-124. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 06/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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12
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Garrido MD, Egea M, Linares MB, Martínez B, Viera C, Rubio B, Borrisser-Pairó F. A procedure for sensory detection of androstenone in meat and meat products from entire male pigs: Development of a panel training. Meat Sci 2016; 122:60-67. [PMID: 27486958 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study represents a proposal for training sensory panels in androstenone (AND) perception in meat and meat products. The procedure consists of four main parts: (1) selection and training of a sensory panel (11 panelists) using standards with Vaseline oil media as carriers of AND and skatole (SKA); (2) developing a training method AND detection in meat; (3) dry cured meat product and (4) cooked meat product. All candidates were able to distinguish between AND, SKA and AND+SKA in Vaseline oil, order AND solutions with different concentrations and classify them in the three categories: low, medium and high. The panel was able to differentiate the meat in the three categories, but only the high level in meat products. Due to the individual features in AND perception, specific training for each type of product is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mª Dolores Garrido
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30071 Murcia, Spain.
| | - Macarena Egea
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30071 Murcia, Spain
| | - Mª Belén Linares
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Murcia, Espinardo, 30071 Murcia, Spain
| | - Beatriz Martínez
- Estación Tecnológica de la Carne, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario, Junta de Castilla y León, Guijuelo 37770, Spain
| | - Ceferina Viera
- Estación Tecnológica de la Carne, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario, Junta de Castilla y León, Guijuelo 37770, Spain
| | - Begoña Rubio
- Estación Tecnológica de la Carne, Instituto Tecnológico Agrario, Junta de Castilla y León, Guijuelo 37770, Spain
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13
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Mörlein D, Trautmann J, Gertheiss J, Meier-Dinkel L, Fischer J, Eynck HJ, Heres L, Looft C, Tholen E. Interaction of Skatole and Androstenone in the Olfactory Perception of Boar Taint. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:4556-4565. [PMID: 27180946 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This study analyzed odor-odor interactions of two malodorous volatile substances, androstenone and skatole, that may accumulate in fat and meat of uncastrated male (boar) pigs. Therefore, fat samples were collected from 1000+ entire male pig carcasses for sensory evaluation and quantification of boar taint compounds using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Each sample was sniffed by 10 trained assessors, resulting in 11 000+ individual ratings, which were subjected to statistical analysis. Pearson correlations of chemical traits and sensory traits (panel average) were higher for skatole [r(1029) = 0.59; p < 0.001] than for androstenone [r(1029) = 0.44; p < 0.001]. Linear terms of androstenone and skatole as well as their interaction significantly (p < 0.05) contributed to perception of deviant smell (R(2) = 0.43). Standardized regression coefficients illustrate the higher importance of skatole (β = 0.68) than androstenone (β = 0.39). Interindividual differences in the responses of assessors to androstenone and skatole are confirmed. A new curved approach is suggested because it better accounts for the interaction of androstenone and skatole than the "safe box" approach. On the basis of these data, sorting strategies using instrumental measurements are discussed. An automated detection based on only skatole measurements is recommended because its performance is only slightly inferior to a sorting based on both androstenone and skatole. Sorting thresholds need to be calibrated against consumer acceptance though.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Goettingen , Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Johanna Trautmann
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Goettingen , Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Goettingen , Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Lisa Meier-Dinkel
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Goettingen , Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jochen Fischer
- ELFI Analytik GbR , Massenhausener Straße 18a, 85375 Neufahrn, Germany
| | - Hans-Jörg Eynck
- Tönnies Lebensmittel GmbH & Co. KG , In der Mark 2, 33378 Rheda-Wiedenbrück, Germany
| | - Lourens Heres
- Vion Food Group , Boseind 10, 5280 AA Boxtel, Netherlands
| | - Christian Looft
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn , D-53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Ernst Tholen
- Institute of Animal Science, University of Bonn , D-53115 Bonn, Germany
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14
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Font-I-Furnols M, Aaslyng MD, Backus GBC, Han J, Kuznetsova TG, Panella-Riera N, Semenova AA, Zhang Y, Oliver MA. Russian and Chinese consumers' acceptability of boar meat patties depending on their sensitivity to androstenone and skatole. Meat Sci 2016; 121:96-103. [PMID: 27294519 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to study the sensitivity of Chinese and Russian female consumers to androstenone and skatole and to identify their preference for pork patties from entire male pigs compared with those from castrated pigs. One-hundred-twenty women in each country were enrolled. The sensitivity of the consumers to both compounds was tested using smell strips and triangular tests. Pairwise tests were performed comparing patties from castrated male pigs with patties from boars with different levels of androstenone and skatole. Approximately 70% of the Russian and 60% of the Chinese consumers were sensitive to skatole and 37% and 32% were sensitive to androstenone, respectively. Nevertheless, a higher percentage of sensitive Russian consumers compared to Chinese consumers disliked the smell of both compounds. In Russia, the consumers' preferences were higher for patties with low levels of both compounds, while no differences were found in China. In both countries, consumers who were sensitive to skatole also preferred patties with low levels of both compounds. Thus, the levels of androstenone and skatole affect boar patty preferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Font-I-Furnols
- IRTA-Product Quality, Finca Camps i Armet, 17121, Monells, Girona, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - M D Aaslyng
- Danish Meat Research Institute (DMRI), Danish Technological Institute, Gregersensvej 9, DK-2630, Tåstrup, Denmark
| | - G B C Backus
- Connecting Agri and Food, Oostwijk 5, 5400 AM Uden, The Netherlands
| | - J Han
- Nanjing Agricultural University, No. 1 Weigang, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210095, PR China
| | - T G Kuznetsova
- Gorbatov's All-Russian Meat Research Institute (VNIIMP), 26, Talalikhina Str., 109316 Moscow, Russia
| | - N Panella-Riera
- IRTA-Product Quality, Finca Camps i Armet, 17121, Monells, Girona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - A A Semenova
- Gorbatov's All-Russian Meat Research Institute (VNIIMP), 26, Talalikhina Str., 109316 Moscow, Russia
| | - Y Zhang
- Nanjing Agricultural University, No. 1 Weigang, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 210095, PR China
| | - M A Oliver
- IRTA-Product Quality, Finca Camps i Armet, 17121, Monells, Girona, Catalonia, Spain
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Aaslyng MD, Broge EHDL, Brockhoff PB, Christensen RHB. The effect of skatole and androstenone on consumer response towards fresh pork from m. longissimus thoracis et lumborum and m. semimembranosus. Meat Sci 2016; 116:174-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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16
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Meier-Dinkel L, Gertheiss J, Schnäckel W, Mörlein D. Consumers' perception and acceptance of boiled and fermented sausages from strongly boar tainted meat. Meat Sci 2016; 118:34-42. [PMID: 27038338 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2015] [Revised: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Characteristic off-flavours may occur in uncastrated male pigs depending on the accumulation of androstenone and skatole. Feasible processing of strongly tainted carcasses is challenging but gains in importance due to the European ban on piglet castration in 2018. This paper investigates consumers' acceptability of two sausage types: (a) emulsion-type (BOILED) and (b) smoked raw-fermented (FERM). Liking (9 point scales) and flavour perception (check-all-that-apply with both, typical and negatively connoted sensory terms) were evaluated by 120 consumers (within-subject design). Proportion of tainted boar meat (0, 50, 100%) affected overall liking of BOILED, F (2, 238)=23.22, P<.001, but not of FERM sausages, F (2, 238)=0.89, P=.414. Consumers described the flavour of BOILED-100 as strong and sweaty. In conclusion, FERM products seem promising for processing of tainted carcasses whereas formulations must be optimized for BOILED in order to eliminate perceptible off-flavours. Boar taint rejection thresholds may be higher for processed than those suggested for unprocessed meat cuts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Meier-Dinkel
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biometrics & Bioinformatics Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Wolfram Schnäckel
- Department of Food and Nutrition Sciences, Anhalt University of Applied Sciences, D-06406 Bernburg, Germany.
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany; isi GmbH, D-37124 Rosdorf/Göttingen, Germany.
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17
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Wauters J, Vercruysse V, Aluwé M, Verplanken K, Vanhaecke L. Boar taint compound levels in back fat versus meat products: Do they correlate? Food Chem 2016; 206:30-6. [PMID: 27041294 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Revised: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Surgical castration of male pigs will soon be abandoned, turning a major advantage of this practice, the elimination of boar taint, into the biggest challenge for pig industry when raising intact male pigs becomes common practice. To map the (economical) consequences in relation to boar-taint consumer acceptance, as well as offer a processing strategy for tainted carcasses to stockholders, the current study investigated not only back fat boar taint levels, but additionally generated information on the levels of boar taint compounds recovered after the production of commercially relevant meat products using UHPLC-HRMS laboratory analysis. Our results demonstrate that levels of androstenone, skatole and indole in back fat and meat products tend to correlate strongly, particularly in fatty meat products (generally r>0.80). Concentration values in the edible (lean) meat fraction were significantly lower compared to back fat and fat sampled from fresh or processed meat (p<0.05).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jella Wauters
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Vicky Vercruysse
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Marijke Aluwé
- Institute of Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Animal Sciences Unit, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
| | - Kaat Verplanken
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Lynn Vanhaecke
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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18
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Verplanken K, Wauters J, Vercruysse V, Aluwé M, Vanhaecke L. Development and validation of a UHPLC-HR-Orbitrap-MS method for the simultaneous determination of androstenone, skatole and indole in porcine meat and meat products. Food Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.06.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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19
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Mörlein D, Christensen RHB, Gertheiss J. Validation of boar taint detection by sensory quality control: relationship between sample size and uncertainty of performance indicators. Meat Sci 2015; 100:232-6. [PMID: 25460131 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Revised: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
To prevent impaired consumer acceptance due to insensitive sensory quality control, it is of primary importance to periodically validate the performance of the assessors. This communication show cases how the uncertainty of sensitivity and specificity estimates is influenced by the total number of assessed samples and the prevalence of positive (here: boar tainted) samples. Furthermore, a statistically sound approach to determining the sample size that is necessary for performance validation is provided. Results show that a small sample size is associated with large uncertainty, i.e., confidence intervals and thus compromising the point estimates for assessor sensitivity. In turn, to reliably identify sensitive assessors with sufficient test power, a large sample size is needed given a certain level of confidence. Easy-to-use tables for sample size estimations are provided.
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20
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Trautmann J, Meier-Dinkel L, Gertheiss J, Mörlein D. Boar taint detection: A comparison of three sensory protocols. Meat Sci 2015; 111:92-100. [PMID: 26348414 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
While recent studies state an important role of human sensory methods for daily routine control of so-called boar taint, the evaluation of different heating methods is still incomplete. This study investigated three common heating methods (microwave (MW), hot-water (HW), hot-iron (HI)) for boar fat evaluation. The comparison was carried out on 72 samples with a 10-person sensory panel. The heating method significantly affected the probability of a deviant rating. Compared to an assumed 'gold standard' (chemical analysis), the performance was best for HI when both sensitivity and specificity were considered. The results show the superiority of the panel result compared to individual assessors. However, the consistency of the individual sensory ratings was not significantly different between MW, HW, and HI. The three protocols showed only fair to moderate agreement. Concluding from the present results, the hot-iron method appears to be advantageous for boar taint evaluation as compared to microwave and hot-water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Trautmann
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Lisa Meier-Dinkel
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biometrics & Bioinformatics Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany; isi GmbH & Co. KG, D-37124 Rosdorf, Göttingen, Germany.
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21
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Sørensen KM, Westley C, Goodacre R, Engelsen SB. Simultaneous quantification of the boar-taint compounds skatole and androstenone by surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and multivariate data analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:7787-95. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8945-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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22
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Mörlein D, Schiermann C, Meier-Dinkel L, Trautmann J, Wigger R, Buttinger G, Wicke M. Effects of context and repeated exposure on food liking: The case of boar taint. Food Res Int 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2014.11.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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23
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Bee G, Chevillon P, Bonneau M. Entire male pig production in Europe. ANIMAL PRODUCTION SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.1071/an15279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In Europe the proportion of male pigs that are left ‘entire’ has been high for many years in the British Isles and Iberian Peninsula, and has recently increased in The Netherlands and to a lesser extent in Germany and France. Various European Union partners agreed in 2010 on a road map to abandon piglet castration by 1 January 2018. Despite significant commercial in-confidence research on instrumental methods for detecting boar-tainted carcasses at slaughter plants, nothing is currently being adopted at an industrial scale. A few abattoirs sort out the most heavily tainted carcasses, using human nose methods. However, there are major concerns with their accuracy, which is currently not documented in any publicly available technical report. The importance of androstenone and skatole for boar taint is still debated but a recent study (CAMPIG; G Backus, H Snoek, MA Oliver, M Font i Furnols, M Aluwé, F Tuyttens, M Bonneau, P Chevillon, MD Aaslyng, D Moerlein, L Meier-Dinkel, J Trautmann, J-E Haugen, unpubl. data) has established preliminary equations relating consumer dissatisfaction to androstenone and skatole levels. These equations still need further consolidation to integrate the impact of very high and very low androstenone levels on consumer acceptability. Reducing the incidence of boar taint at a production level and at the same time overcoming possible greater aggressive behaviour of entire male pigs are also critical for abandoning castration. Genetic selection is the most efficient way to reduce androstenone, but the selection of boar-taint-free genetic lines without any adverse consequence on the reproductive and growth performance will take time. Skatole levels can be efficiently reduced via feeding specific feedstuffs and good control of the animals’ environment. Provided that the incidence of boar taint can be reduced to an acceptable level and the residual tainted carcasses can be sorted out at a reasonable price by mutually recognised methods, the abandonment of castration will result in high benefits, up to one-billion euros for both the pork industry, via a drastic reduction of production costs, and society at large, through improved animal welfare and reduced impact on the environment.
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24
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Sørensen KM, Engelsen SB. Measurement of boar taint in porcine fat using a high-throughput gas chromatography-mass spectrometry protocol. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:9420-9427. [PMID: 25230360 DOI: 10.1021/jf5022785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This work outlines an optimized gas chromatrography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) based protocol for screening of the presence of the three boar-taint-producing compounds indole, skatole (3-methylindole), and androstenone (5α-androst-16-en-3-one) in porcine fat. The study shows that an accuracy suitable for sample screening can be achieved even when speed and ease of sample handling is prioritized and without the use of internal standards. The method provides levels of detection of 82 ng/g for indole, 97 ng/g for skatole, and 623 ng/g for androstenone (in a 2 g natural backfat matrix). A least-squares approach of predicting the sample analyte mass from instrument response is shown to have prediction errors (root-mean-square error) of 96 ng/g for indole, 94 ng/g for skatole, and 331.3 ng/g for androstenone. The method is intended for discrimination of samples in risk groups, and a scheme is proposed to turn the GC-MS response of the boar-taint analytes into risk classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klavs M Sørensen
- Faculty of Science, Department of Food Science, Spectroscopy & Chemometrics, University of Copenhagen , Rolighedsvej 26, DK-1858 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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25
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Meier-Dinkel L, Gertheiss J, Müller S, Wesoly R, Mörlein D. Evaluating the performance of sensory quality control: the case of boar taint. Meat Sci 2014; 100:73-84. [PMID: 25310880 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Revised: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Detection of malodours referred to as 'boar taint' in entire male pigs is essential for quality control when refraining piglet castration. This study analysed the sensitivity and specificity of sensory evaluation by trained assessors (n=18) compared to chemical analysis of two marker compounds (androstenone, skatole) in backfat (n=794). Taking the measurement uncertainty into consideration, several cut-off thresholds for chemical analysis were exemplarily evaluated. Using the panel average score, sensitivity and specificity of sensory analysis ranged from 61 to 69% and 77 to 85%, respectively. Performance of individual assessors varied highly (sensitivity: 47 to 86%; specificity: 45 to 88%) and correlated to olfactory acuity to the compounds. According to receiver operating characteristic-curves, the average panel performed better than single assessors regardless of the sensory criterion shift. Agreement plots illustrate that high skatole levels are better detected than high androstenone levels (useful for assessor feedback). The agreement between sensory and chemical analyses was moderate. Assessors need to be selected carefully.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Meier-Dinkel
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Quality Section, University of Goettingen, D-37075 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biometrics and Bioinformatics Section, University of Goettingen, D-37075 Goettingen, Germany
| | - Simone Müller
- Thuringian State Institute for Agriculture, Section Animal Production, Regional Office Bad Salzungen, D-36433 Bad Salzungen, Germany
| | - Raffael Wesoly
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Breeding, Behavioral Physiology of Farm Animals, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Quality Section, University of Goettingen, D-37075 Goettingen, Germany.
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26
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Trautmann J, Gertheiss J, Wicke M, Mörlein D. How olfactory acuity affects the sensory assessment of boar fat: a proposal for quantification. Meat Sci 2014; 98:255-62. [PMID: 24976560 DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Revised: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Due to animal welfare concerns the production of entire male pigs is one viable alternative to surgical castration. Elevated levels of boar taint may, however, impair consumer acceptance. Due to the lack of technical methods, control of boar taint is currently done using sensory quality control. While the need for control measures with respect to boar taint has been clearly stated in EU legislation, no specific requirements for selecting assessors have yet been documented. This study proposes tests for the psychophysical evaluation of olfactory acuity to key volatiles contributing to boar taint. Odor detection thresholds for androstenone and skatole are assessed as well as the subject's ability to identify odorants at various levels through easy-to-use paper smell strips. Subsequently, fat samples are rated by the assessors, and the accuracy of boar taint evaluation is studied. Considerable variation of olfactory performance is observed demonstrating the need for objective criteria to select assessors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Trautmann
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan Gertheiss
- Department of Animal Sciences, Biometrics & Bioinformatics Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Wicke
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Daniel Mörlein
- Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science Group, University of Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany.
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27
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Mörlein D, Meier-Dinkel L, Moritz J, Sharifi AR, Knorr C. Learning to smell: Repeated exposure increases sensitivity to androstenone, a major component of boar taint. Meat Sci 2013; 94:425-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Revised: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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