Prediction of the conditions for the consumption of game by Polish consumers

Attitudes of Young Tri-City Residents toward Game Meat in the Context of Food Neophobia and a Tendency to Look for Diversity in Food

To conduct rational hunting management, a certain number of wild animals must be harvested yearly. However, some countries have a problem with managing the harvested meat. An example is Poland, where game consumption is estimated at 0.08 kg/person/year. This situation leads to environmental pollution as a result of meat exports. The level of environmental pollution depends on the type of transport and distance. However, the use of meat in the country of harvesting would generate less pollution than its export. Three constructs were used in the study, which aimed to determine whether the respondents show food neophobia, whether they are willing to seek diversity in food, and what their attitudes towards game meat are. All the scales used were previously validated. Four-hundred and fifty-three questionnaires were collected using the PAPI method. It was found that the respondents showed ambivalent attitudes towards game meat to the greatest extent (76.6%), 16.34% had positive attitudes, and 7.06% had negative attitudes. It seems essential that most of the respondents were highly inclined to look for variety in food (55.85%). Regarding food neophobia, there were 51.43% of people with medium neophobia, while also many people with a low level of neophobia-43.05%. Such results allow speculation that the respondents are open to the new food, they are looking for it, and the low level of game meat consumption is primarily due to the lack of knowledge and awareness about the value of this meat.

Consumers' Perception and Preference for the Consumption of Wild Game Meat among Adults in Poland

Wild game meat can be a healthier, safer, and more environmentally friendly alternative to meat from farm animals. The aims of this study were to know the preferences and opinions of Polish consumers regarding game meat and its use in their diet, and to identify consumer segments based on differences in individual game meat choices, concerns, and eating habits related to game meat. The survey was conducted using the platform for online surveys among 1261 adult Poles. Six clusters characterizing the behavior of game consumers were identified (casual consumers, occasional game gourmets, indifferent consumers, occasional consumers, accidental consumers, wild game lovers) and four clusters among those who do not eat game (uninterested, restricted, dislikers, fearful). It has been found that wild game is more often eaten by hunters and their family or friends. The most common reasons for not consuming game are high prices, low availability, no family tradition, and unacceptable taste. Many positive respondents eat game because of its nutritional value but are concerned about the potential health risks and lack of cooking skills. The results of this study indicate the need for information programs for consumers about this meat. They will provide guidance to meat companies about consumer preferences for game and allow them to develop appropriate marketing strategies.

A Review on Alaria alata, Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis spp. in Mammalian Game Meat Consumed in Europe: Epidemiology, Risk Management and Future Directions

Simple Summary

In many European countries, game meat consumption is related to the traditional hunting culture. Its demand and consumption are increasing, also due to the growing populations of wild ungulates. However, specific public health issues exist and should be taken into account. This review focuses on the causal agents, epidemiology, potential risk for human health and its management along the supply chain, including parasite detection at slaughtering and inactivation in meat, of three parasites (Alaria alata, Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis spp.), which can be transmitted by the main mammalian game meat species in the EU: wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama), Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), moose (Alces alces), hare (Lepus europaeus) and wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). By presenting the main issues and knowledge gaps, this study aims to contribute to an improved control supporting the risk analysis process.

Abstract

Game meat is increasingly appreciated and consumed in Europe, also due to the growing population of wild ungulates. In addition to interesting nutritional properties and market opportunities, game meat is characterized by some specific public health issues. This review focuses on the etiology, epidemiology, public health aspects and risk management along the supply chain, including parasite detection at slaughtering and inactivation in meat, of three selected foodborne parasitic hazards (Alaria alata, Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis spp.) in the main mammalian game meat species in the EU: wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama), Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), moose (Alces alces), hare (Lepus europaeus) and wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The presented data point out the main issues, and knowledge gaps as well as the potential for improved control in order to contribute to the risk analysis process. To pursue an effective management of these parasitic zoonoses, awareness raising should involve all figures in the supply chain, including hunters, restaurateurs and consumers. Human behaviour and the lack of knowledge regarding meat borne parasitic zoonoses and the health risks they pose seem to be the most important factors responsible for human infections. However, detection methods, starting from the sampling procedure, should be further developed and standardized in order to improve the collection of accurate and up-to-date epidemiological data.

Perception of the Health Threats Related to the Consumption of Wild Animal Meat-Is Eating Game Risky?

Consumer interest in game meat has increased in recent years. Consumers appreciate its nutritional value but still have many concerns. Based on data from a quantitative study conducted in the group of 450 purposively selected Polish respondents declaring to consume the game meat, consumers were segmented concerning the perception of health risks associated with its consumption. Three separate clusters were identified using hierarchical cluster analysis: Indifferent (42%), Fearful (30%), and Selective (28%). The clusters differed significantly in the perception of the role of game in their lives and taking actions to mitigate the health risks associated with its consumption. In addition, their socioeconomic profiles were significantly different. The Indifferent segment-significantly more often than the other segments-believes that game has a positive impact on health, and the way to counteract the health risks is to not eat raw meat. The Selective segment attaches great importance to the choice of consumption place as a warranty of access to safe meat. The Fearful segment is willing to pay more for good quality meat and search for information. The results proved that the game consumers are not a homogenous group. Recognizing the differences can indicate a path for the traders to efficiently meet the consumers' expectations and needs.

Industrial Halal hunted-game and feral animals' meat production

Hunted wild game meat (HGM) is growing in popularity and attracting a premium among consumers. This has led to the emergence of supply chains for industrially produced HGM in many countries. With the growing demand for Halal meat and the disposable income of its consumers around the globe, meat and game industries in countries rich in wild game and feral animals would be encouraged to consider supplying Halal hunted game meat (HHGM) to Halal consumers around the world. Meeting the Halal requirements for industrial HHGM is easy given the already existing supply chains for HGM in many producing countries. What is needed by the Game and Meat Industries in these countries to comply with the Halal requirements in terms of the hunted animal and the hunter, the hunt location, modes and methods, the handling and processing of hunted carcases and the hunted animal welfare and sustainability in the industrial production of HHGM, is the subject of this review.

Disentangling Individual Phases in the Hunted vs. Farmed Meat Supply Chain: Exploring Hunters' Perceptions in Italy

The growing body of literature concerning the hunted wild game meat (HWGM) supply chain is mainly focused on the final consumer, while little is known about upstream production processes. Even though the hunter plays a central role here, it is not well understood how hunters themselves perceive their role in the various phases of the production process. The present study explores Italian hunters’ perception of the HWGM supply chain and compares it to their perception towards the conventional farmed meat supply chain. We distinguish several phases of this production process and find that the final phase related to on-site game dressing is considered problematic, perhaps because hunters perceive themselves as less skilled than professional butchers. The results, in fact, show that hunters prefer hunted products over farmed meat, but that they consider hunted wild boar meat less safe compared to farmed pork. Findings from this study provide a rare glimpse from the inside of the supply chain and reveals the needs for a broad risk assessment analysis on the Italian game meat supply chain. Considering the development of the Italian emerging market of the HWGM, our results also highlight the relevance of training activities on hunters in order to increase the safety and quality of the final product.

Game Meat Consumption-Conscious Choice or Just a Game?

Game meat is constantly present on the European meat market, but a limited number of consumers are interested in its consumption. Considering the unique features of wild animal meat, we should explore what pushes consumers to include it in their diet. To identify the motives determining the choice of game meat, a quantitative survey based on the computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) method was conducted among 450 participants. The statistical analysis based on the logistic regression model allowed us to assess the significance of emotional motives leading to game eating and to investigate the importance of the rational motives related to the quality attributes of game for consumers. It was shown that rational motives influence the consumers’ choice more than emotional factors, while the most important motives are connected with healthcare issues. Consumers, for whom the crucial attributes of quality are taste, nutritional value, and low fat content, constitute a group that might more often include game in their diet in the future. Among the emotional motives, the familiarity, described as a feeling of knowing the product, also has a statistically significant impact on the consumers’ choice. The results obtained may be useful for academic theoreticians and market experts as well.

Relationships Between Fat and Cholesterol Contents and Fatty Acid Composition in Different Meat-Producing Animal Species

The objective of this study was to determine the relationships between intramuscular fat, cholesterol contents and fatty acid composition in the muscles of different animal species. Intramuscular fat, cholesterol and fatty acid composition in 207 muscle samples from 129 animals of different species (pigs, beef cattle, farmed red deer, horses and geese) were determined and analysed. The obtained results indicated unequal relations between intramuscular fat and cholesterol contents and fatty acid proportions in the muscles of different animal species. The increase of intramuscular fat content resulted in higher monounsaturated and lower polyunsaturated fatty acid contents in most muscles of meat producing animals. In all the species higher fatness did not show any increase in cholesterol content and also cholesterol contents were lower as fat increased in m. semimembranosus of pigs and m. pectoralis profundus of horses. The cholesterol content positively correlated with saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in the longissimus muscle with the lowest fat content found in red deer and beef cattle, whereas the correlations between these measures were negative in m. pectoralis profundus of horses and the breast of goose containing high fat levels. Negative correlations between polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol content were found in the longissimus muscle of red deer and cattle, whereas these correlations in goose breast and horse meat were positive.

Attitudes towards hunting in Polish society and the related impacts of hunting experience, socialisation and social networks

In recent years, hunters in Poland have faced a low level of social acceptance. Scientists from the USA and Sweden have demonstrated that contact with hunters and game meat consumption is one of the decisive factors affecting the social acceptance of hunting. The aim of our study was to examine attitudes towards hunting (ATH) held by the non-hunting part of Polish society and to analyse factors influencing these perceptions. We hypothesised that Polish people have a generally negative ATH but that Polish people who have direct contact with hunters and eat game meat have a more positive ATH. During the study, we surveyed a randomly selected representative sample of 486 respondents. Based on nine statements defining non-hunters’ perceptions, we determined ATH and then investigated its association with attitudinal items such as hunting experience, socialisation, social network and socio-demographic information. We found that most respondents (61.7%) possessed an ATH that was at least slightly positive. Experience with hunting and hunters had a significant positive impact on ATH, and respondents who included game meat in their diet on a regular basis had a more positive ATH, as did respondents who participate in hunting. Socialisation and social network (having parents or friends who hunt/having a hunter in the household) were key positive influences on ATH. Conversely, the inability to visit a forest in their neighbourhood due to ongoing hunting had a significant negative impact on ATH. Different socio-demographic variables had a low impact on ATH. The results of this study show measurable steps towards increasing knowledge about social acceptance of hunting and can also be used as a strong argument in the discussion regarding the existence of sustainable hunting in Europe. We recommend several management implications, especially in a Polish context.

Fatty Acid Composition of Meat and Edible Offal from Free-Living Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

The objective of the study was to characterize tissue-associated differences in the fatty acid composition of fat in skeletal muscles M. longissimus dorsi (loin), M. biceps femoris (hind quarter), and M. triceps brachii (shoulder), and internal organs (i.e., liver, heart, and kidney) from free-living red deer (Cervus elaphus) females (n = 11) hunted in Lithuania. Skeletal muscles were characterized by lower content of free fat compared with the offal. The highest percentage of saturated fatty acids was found in the liver fat, whereas the lowest percentage was in the heart. Red deer offal showed significantly lower and higher proportions of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids compared to meat, respectively. Higher proportions of oleic fatty acid in the shoulder and hind quarter compared to the loin were the only significant differences between skeletal muscles. The lowest and the highest n-6 polyunsaturated/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6/n-3PUFA) ratio were found in the liver and heart, respectively. More favorable lower atherogenic index and higher hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio found in the offal showed their high nutritional value, however, higher peroxidizability index indicated higher susceptibility to lipid peroxidation compared to skeletal muscles.

Fallow Deer (Dama dama) as a Reservoir of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli (STEC)

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) are responsible for the outbreaks of serious diseases in humans. Only a few reports on fallow deer as a reservoir of foodborne pathogens have been published to date. The purpose of this study was to determine the occurrence of STEC strains in the fallow deer population in Poland. In all, 94 fallow deer swabs were tested. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to detect the virulence profile of stx1, stx2 and eae or aggR genes, to identify the subtypes of stx1 and stx2 genes and to perform O and H serotyping. STEC and attaching and effacing (AE)-STEC were identified in 13 isolates (13.83%). The most hazardous virulence profile was detected in three strains, namely stx2d serotype O103:HNM, eae/stx1a serotype O26:HNM and eae/stx1a serotype O157:H7. The predominant stx gene was stx2, which was identified in 76.92% of isolates. E. coli O157 was detected in 4/94 (4.26%). Other E. coli serogroups, O26, O103, O111 and O145, were identified in 14/94 fallow deer (14.89%). The present findings suggest that fallow deer are carriers of STEC/AE-STEC that are potentially pathogenic to humans.

Nutritional quality of wild Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) meat: Effects of sex and hunting period

The proximate composition, energetic value, minerals, B-group vitamins and pH value of the loin (longissimus thoracis) of 71 wild Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus), were evaluated in stags and hinds hunted in autumn and winter. In autumn, meat had a higher content of moisture, K, Na, Zn and thiamine when compared to winter, in which higher content of proteins and P were detected. Meat from stags had a higher moisture, Na, Zn and folic acid content, while hinds provided optimal pH values (<5.8) in higher proportions than stags. Considering European Unions nutrition and health claims, deer loin has a high content of proteins, Zn, vitamin B₁₂ (cyanocobalamin), and a low content of fat and sodium/salt, being a source of P, Fe, Cu and vitamins B₂ (riboflavin) and B₃ (niacin). Additionally, health claims related to children's development could be attributed to this meat, which may increase the interest on deer meat from consumers.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli isolates from red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in Poland

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia (E.) coli (STEC) pathogens are responsible for the outbreaks of serious diseases in humans, including haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS), bloody diarrhoea (BD) and diarrhoea (D), and they pose a significant public health concern. Wild ruminants are an important environmental reservoir of foodborne pathogens that can cause serious illnesses in humans and contaminate fresh products. There is a general scarcity of published data about wildlife as a reservoir of foodborne pathogens in Poland, which is why the potential epidemiological risk associated with red deer, roe deer and fallow deer as reservoirs of STEC/AE-STEC strains was evaluated in this study. The aim of the study was to investigate the prevalence of STEC strains in red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) populations in north-eastern Poland, and to evaluate the potential health risk associated with wild ruminants carrying STEC/AE-STEC strains. We examined 252 rectal swabs obtained from 134 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 97 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 21 fallow deer (Dama dama) in north-eastern Poland. The samples were enriched in modified buffered peptone water. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were conducted to determine the virulence profile of stx1, stx2 and eae or aggR genes, to identify the subtypes of stx1 and stx2 genes, and to perform O and H serotyping. E. coli O157:H7 isolates were detected in the rectal swabs collected from 1/134 roe deer (0.75%) and 4/97 red deer (4.1%), and they were not detected in fallow deer (Dama dama). The remaining E. coli serogroups, namely O26, O103, O111 and O145 that belong to the "top five" non-O157 serogroups, were detected in 15/134 roe deer (11.19%), 18/97 red deer (18.56%) and 2/21 fallow deer (9.52%). STEC/AE-STEC strains were detected in 33 roe deer isolates (24.63%), 21 red deer isolates (21.65%) and 2 fallow deer isolates (9.52%). According to the most recent FAO/WHO report, stx2a and eae genes are the primary virulence traits associated with HUS, and these genes were identified in one roe deer isolate and one red deer isolate. Stx2 was the predominant stx gene, and it was detected in 78.79% of roe deer and in 71.43% of red deer isolates. The results of this study confirmed that red deer and roe deer in north-eastern Poland are carriers of STEC/AE-STEC strains that are potentially pathogenic for humans. This is the first report documenting the virulence of STEC/AE-STEC strains from wild ruminants in Poland.

Analysis of the perception and behavior of consumers regarding capybara meat by means of exploratory methods

The objective of this work was to identify the perception of consumers regarding the consumption of capybara meat, as well as to generate information that will help in the development of the productive chain of the species. Free word association and application of a questionnaire containing questions were performed. We classified dimensions with categories related to the words of greatest impact mentioned. Through the method of word association, it was noticed that terms related to taste and aroma were the most cited. From the 14 factors explored by the questionnaire, four were identified as responsible for explaining 71% of the total common variance of the variables. The exploratory and confirmatory factorial analysis showed that four factors were sufficient to measure the main characteristics that should be considered in marketing strategies by the industries and breeders who want to increase the consumption of capybara meat. These main factors were animal welfare, price, quality and the dissemination of the benefits of meat.

Discovering market segments for hunted wild game meat

Recent years have seen a notable increase in the popularity of hunted wild game meat (HWGM) among consumers. This has led to a growing number of emerging markets for HWGM in many developed countries, including Europe. However, expansion of these markets is often hampered by the lack of a professional supply chain. The profitability of a supply chain would depend on consumer willingness to purchase HWGM products. This paper aims to (1) segment consumers based on their general attitudes towards HWGM, their perceptions of its safety, animal welfare, orientation concerning wildlife-related values, hunting activities, objective knowledge and socio-demographic factors and (2) assess whether these general attitudes affect consumer intentions to purchase HWGM products. To achieve our objective, a random sample of Italian consumers was recruited. Three different consumer segments were identified: pro-animal consumers, disoriented consumers, and hunted wild game meat eaters. Our findings highlighted an important lack of knowledge among consumers.

The Effect of Long-Term Frozen Storage on the Quality of Meat (Longissimus thoracis et Lumborum) from Female Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus L.)

The objective of this study was to determine the quality of meat (Longissimus thoracis et lumborum) from 10 female roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.), which was vacuum-packaged, frozen-stored (−26°C) for 6, 10, and 12 months, and compared with fresh, nonfrozen meat. Roe deer (aged 3 to 5 years) were hunter-harvested in north-eastern Poland in December and January during the same hunting season. Frozen storage did not affect the proximate chemical composition of meat (except for ash content). An analysis of the physicochemical properties of meat revealed that frozen-stored meat was characterized by a darker color, a higher hue angle, lower ability to bind its own and added water, and lower cooking loss compared with nonfrozen meat. The values noted for meat samples that were stored in the freezer for 12 months (increase in pH, considerable decrease in water-holding capacity, and first symptoms of flavor deterioration) indicate that frozen roe deer meat should be stored for no more than 10 to 12 months to maintain its high quality.

Meat, Meat Products and Seafood as Sources of Energy and Nutrients in the Average Polish Diet

The aim of this study was to identify the share of meat, meat products and seafood in the contribution of energy and 22 nutrients to the average Polish diet. Data from the nationally representative sample of Polish population (2016 Household Budget Survey) on meat and seafood product consumption from 38,886 households (n = 99,230) were calculated into one person per month. The analyses were conducted for seven food groups (e.g., red meat, poultry) and 16 products (e.g., beef, chicken). Approximately 18.5% of energy is delivered from the sources such as meat, meat products and seafood, providing a higher percentage of 18 nutrients to the diet (e.g., 56.0% of vitamin B12, 52.3% of niacin, 44.9% of cholesterol, 41.5% of protein, 41.4%of vitamin D, 37.6% of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), 37.4% of thiamin, 33.8% of zinc, 32.0% of total fats, 30.3% of saturated fatty acids (SFA), 29.6% of vitamin B6, 25.3% of riboflavin, 24.9% of phosphorus, 24.8% of iron, 22.5% of vitamin A, 21.6% of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and 20.3% of sodium). For the contribution of 18 nutrients and energy, processed meat products were ranked first. These results should be taken into consideration in order to compose diets with adequate energy and nutrient contribution and also to analyze benefits and risk resulting from the current level of consumption of red and processed meat, fish and other seafood.