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Diaz-Cánova D, Moens U, Brinkmann A, Nitsche A, Okeke MI. Whole genome sequencing of recombinant viruses obtained from co-infection and superinfection of Vero cells with modified vaccinia virus ankara vectored influenza vaccine and a naturally occurring cowpox virus. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1277447. [PMID: 38633245 PMCID: PMC11021749 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1277447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) has been widely tested in clinical trials as recombinant vector vaccine against infectious diseases and cancers in humans and animals. However, one biosafety concern about the use of MVA vectored vaccine is the potential for MVA to recombine with naturally occurring orthopoxviruses in cells and hosts in which it multiplies poorly and, therefore, producing viruses with mosaic genomes with altered genetic and phenotypic properties. We previously conducted co-infection and superinfection experiments with MVA vectored influenza vaccine (MVA-HANP) and a feline Cowpox virus (CPXV-No-F1) in Vero cells (that were semi-permissive to MVA infection) and showed that recombination occurred in both co-infected and superinfected cells. In this study, we selected the putative recombinant viruses and performed genomic characterization of these viruses. Some putative recombinant viruses displayed plaque morphology distinct of that of the parental viruses. Our analysis demonstrated that they had mosaic genomes of different lengths. The recombinant viruses, with a genome more similar to MVA-HANP (>50%), rescued deleted and/or fragmented genes in MVA and gained new host ranges genes. Our analysis also revealed that some MVA-HANP contained a partially deleted transgene expression cassette and one recombinant virus contained part of the transgene expression cassette similar to that incomplete MVA-HANP. The recombination in co-infected and superinfected Vero cells resulted in recombinant viruses with unpredictable biological and genetic properties as well as recovery of delete/fragmented genes in MVA and transfer of the transgene into replication competent CPXV. These results are relevant to hazard characterization and risk assessment of MVA vectored biologicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Diaz-Cánova
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Annika Brinkmann
- WHO Reference Laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 and WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- WHO Reference Laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 and WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Malachy Ifeanyi Okeke
- Section of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria
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Okwor T, Mbala PK, Evans DH, Kindrachuk J. A contemporary review of clade-specific virological differences in monkeypox viruses. Clin Microbiol Infect 2023; 29:1502-1507. [PMID: 37507009 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2023.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is an emerging zoonotic virus that has had on-going public health impacts in endemic regions of Central and West Africa for over a half-century. Historically, the MPXV clade endemic in regions of Central Africa is associated with higher morbidity and mortality as compared with the clade endemic in West Africa. OBJECTIVES Here, we review the virological characteristics of MPXV and discuss potential relationships between virulence factors and clade- (and subclade-) specific differences in virulence and transmission patterns. SOURCES Targeted search was conducted in PubMed using ((monkeypox virus) OR (Orthopoxvirus)) AND (zoonosis)) OR ((monkeypox) OR (human mpox). CONTENT Forty-seven references were considered that included three publicly available data reports and/or press releases, one book chapter, and 44 published manuscripts. IMPLICATIONS Although zoonosis has been historically linked to emergence events in humans, epidemiological analyses of more recent outbreaks have identified increasing frequencies of human-to-human transmission. Furthermore, viral transmission during the 2022 global human mpox outbreak, caused by a recently identified MPXV subclade, has relied exclusively on human-to-human contact with no known zoonotic link.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tochi Okwor
- Department of Planning, Research & Statistics, Nigeria Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, Abuja, Nigeria
| | - Placide K Mbala
- Département de Virologie, Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo; Département de Biologie Médicale, Université de Kinshasa, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - David H Evans
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Immunology and Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, The University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jason Kindrachuk
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
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Cowpox Viruses: A Zoo Full of Viral Diversity and Lurking Threats. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020325. [PMID: 36830694 PMCID: PMC9953750 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox viruses (CPXVs) exhibit the broadest known host range among the Poxviridae family and have caused lethal outbreaks in various zoo animals and pets across 12 Eurasian countries, as well as an increasing number of human cases. Herein, we review the history of how the cowpox name has evolved since the 1700s up to modern times. Despite early documentation of the different properties of CPXV isolates, only modern genetic analyses and phylogenies have revealed the existence of multiple Orthopoxvirus species that are currently constrained under the CPXV designation. We further chronicle modern outbreaks in zoos, domesticated animals, and humans, and describe animal models of experimental CPXV infections and how these can help shaping CPXV species distinctions. We also describe the pathogenesis of modern CPXV infections in animals and humans, the geographic range of CPXVs, and discuss CPXV-host interactions at the molecular level and their effects on pathogenicity and host range. Finally, we discuss the potential threat of these viruses and the future of CPXV research to provide a comprehensive review of CPXVs.
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Genomic Sequencing and Phylogenomics of Cowpox Virus. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102134. [PMID: 36298689 PMCID: PMC9611595 DOI: 10.3390/v14102134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV; genus Orthopoxvirus; family Poxviridae) is the causative agent of cowpox, a self-limiting zoonotic infection. CPXV is endemic in Eurasia, and human CPXV infections are associated with exposure to infected animals. In the Fennoscandian region, five CPXVs isolated from cats and humans were collected and used in this study. We report the complete sequence of their genomes, which ranged in size from 220–222 kbp, containing between 215 and 219 open reading frames. The phylogenetic analysis of 87 orthopoxvirus strains, including the Fennoscandian CPXV isolates, confirmed the division of CPXV strains into at least five distinct major clusters (CPXV-like 1, CPXV-like 2, VACV-like, VARV-like and ECTV-Abatino-like) and can be further divided into eighteen sub-species based on the genetic and patristic distances. Bayesian time-scaled evolutionary history of CPXV was reconstructed employing concatenated 62 non-recombinant conserved genes of 55 CPXV. The CPXV evolution rate was calculated to be 1.65 × 10−5 substitution/site/year. Our findings confirmed that CPXV is not a single species but a polyphyletic assemblage of several species and thus, a reclassification is warranted.
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Diaz-Cánova D, Moens UL, Brinkmann A, Nitsche A, Okeke MI. Genomic Sequencing and Analysis of a Novel Human Cowpox Virus With Mosaic Sequences From North America and Old World Orthopoxvirus. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:868887. [PMID: 35592007 PMCID: PMC9112427 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.868887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses (OPXVs) not only infect their natural hosts, but some OPXVs can also cause disease in humans. Previously, we partially characterized an OPXV isolated from an 18-year-old male living in Northern Norway. Restriction enzyme analysis and partial genome sequencing characterized this virus as an atypical cowpox virus (CPXV), which we named CPXV-No-H2. In this study, we determined the complete genome sequence of CPXV-No-H2 using Illumina and Nanopore sequencing. Our results showed that the whole CPXV-No-H2 genome is 220,276 base pairs (bp) in length, with inverted terminal repeat regions of approximately 7 kbp, containing 217 predicted genes. Seventeen predicted CPXV-No-H2 proteins were most similar to OPXV proteins from the Old World, including Ectromelia virus (ECTV) and Vaccinia virus, and North America, Alaskapox virus (AKPV). CPXV-No-H2 has a mosaic genome with genes most similar to other OPXV genes, and seven potential recombination events were identified. The phylogenetic analysis showed that CPXV-No-H2 formed a separate clade with the German CPXV isolates CPXV_GerMygEK938_17 and CPXV_Ger2010_MKY, sharing 96.4 and 96.3% nucleotide identity, respectively, and this clade clustered closely with the ECTV-OPXV Abatino clade. CPXV-No-H2 is a mosaic virus that may have arisen out of several recombination events between OPXVs, and its phylogenetic clustering suggests that ECTV-Abatino-like cowpox viruses form a distinct, new clade of cowpox viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Diaz-Cánova
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ugo L Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Department of Medical Biology, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Annika Brinkmann
- Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, WHO Reference Laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 and WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Highly Pathogenic Viruses, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, WHO Reference Laboratory for SARS-CoV-2 and WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Malachy Ifeanyi Okeke
- Section of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, American University of Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria
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Mavian C, López-Bueno A, Martín R, Nitsche A, Alcamí A. Comparative Pathogenesis, Genomics and Phylogeography of Mousepox. Viruses 2021; 13:v13061146. [PMID: 34203773 PMCID: PMC8232671 DOI: 10.3390/v13061146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Ectromelia virus (ECTV), the causative agent of mousepox, has threatened laboratory mouse colonies worldwide for almost a century. Mousepox has been valuable for the understanding of poxvirus pathogenesis and immune evasion. Here, we have monitored in parallel the pathogenesis of nine ECTVs in BALB/cJ mice and report the full-length genome sequence of eight novel ECTV isolates or strains, including the first ECTV isolated from a field mouse, ECTV-MouKre. This approach allowed us to identify several genes, absent in strains attenuated through serial passages in culture, that may play a role in virulence and a set of putative genes that may be involved in enhancing viral growth in vitro. We identified a putative strong inhibitor of the host inflammatory response in ECTV-MouKre, an isolate that did not cause local foot swelling and developed a moderate virulence. Most of the ECTVs, except ECTV-Hampstead, encode a truncated version of the P4c protein that impairs the recruitment of virions into the A-type inclusion bodies, and our data suggest that P4c may play a role in viral dissemination and transmission. This is the first comprehensive report that sheds light into the phylogenetic and geographic relationship of the worldwide outbreak dynamics for the ECTV species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Mavian
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Campus de Cantoblanco, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Nicolás Cabrera 1, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (C.M.); (A.L.-B.); (R.M.)
| | - Alberto López-Bueno
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Campus de Cantoblanco, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Nicolás Cabrera 1, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (C.M.); (A.L.-B.); (R.M.)
| | - Rocío Martín
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Campus de Cantoblanco, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Nicolás Cabrera 1, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (C.M.); (A.L.-B.); (R.M.)
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Highly Pathogenic Viruses (ZBS1), Robert Koch Institute, 13353 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Antonio Alcamí
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Campus de Cantoblanco, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Nicolás Cabrera 1, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (C.M.); (A.L.-B.); (R.M.)
- Correspondence:
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Alakunle E, Moens U, Nchinda G, Okeke MI. Monkeypox Virus in Nigeria: Infection Biology, Epidemiology, and Evolution. Viruses 2020; 12:E1257. [PMID: 33167496 PMCID: PMC7694534 DOI: 10.3390/v12111257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 84.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is a member of orthopoxvirus genus. The reemergence of MPXV in 2017 (at Bayelsa state) after 39 years of no reported case in Nigeria, and the export of travelers' monkeypox (MPX) from Nigeria to other parts of the world, in 2018 and 2019, respectively, have raised concern that MPXV may have emerged to occupy the ecological and immunological niche vacated by smallpox virus. This review X-rays the current state of knowledge pertaining the infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution of MPXV in Nigeria and worldwide, especially with regard to the human, cellular, and viral factors that modulate the virus transmission dynamics, infection, and its maintenance in nature. This paper also elucidates the role of recombination, gene loss and gene gain in MPXV evolution, chronicles the role of signaling in MPXV infection, and reviews the current therapeutic options available for the treatment and prevention of MPX. Additionally, genome-wide phylogenetic analysis was undertaken, and we show that MPXV isolates from recent 2017 outbreak in Nigeria were monophyletic with the isolate exported to Israel from Nigeria but do not share the most recent common ancestor with isolates obtained from earlier outbreaks, in 1971 and 1978, respectively. Finally, the review highlighted gaps in knowledge particularly the non-identification of a definitive reservoir host animal for MPXV and proposed future research endeavors to address the unresolved questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Alakunle
- Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Biomedical Science Concentration, School of Arts and Sciences, American University of Nigeria, 98 Lamido Zubairu Way, PMB 2250 Yola, Nigeria;
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, University i Tromsø (UIT)—The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway;
| | - Godwin Nchinda
- Laboratory of Vaccinology and Immunology, The Chantal Biya International Reference Center for Research on the Prevention and Management HIV/AIDS (CIRCB), P.O Box 3077 Yaoundé-Messa, Cameroon;
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology & Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.O Box 420110 Awka, Nigeria
| | - Malachy Ifeanyi Okeke
- Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Biomedical Science Concentration, School of Arts and Sciences, American University of Nigeria, 98 Lamido Zubairu Way, PMB 2250 Yola, Nigeria;
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Khalafalla AI, Al Hosani MA, Ishag HZA, Al Muhairi SS. More cell culture passaged Camelpox virus sequences found resembling those of vaccinia virus. Open Vet J 2020; 10:144-156. [PMID: 32821659 PMCID: PMC7419068 DOI: 10.4314/ovj.v10i2.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Camelpox is the most infectious and economically important disease of camelids that causes significant morbidity and mortality rates. Several live attenuated vaccines against Camelpox virus (CMLV) are produced worldwide by passaging field isolates in cell culture. Sequence of a high passage Saudi isolate of CMLV was previously found closely resembled Vaccinia virus (VACV). AIM To determine whether other high cell culture passage CMLV isolates are genetically resemble VACV and further to explore the possible mechanism of the resemblance. METHODS We performed polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequence analysis of A-type inclusion body protein (ATIP), L1R, and open reading frame (ORF) 185 genes on different cell culture passage levels of a field isolate, two high passage vaccines, wild-type, and reference strains of CMLV. RESULTS We demonstrate that additional two high passage attenuated vaccine candidate from Sudan and UAE likewise contain sequences resembling VACV more than CMLV. Furthermore, sequence analysis of the ATIP gene of selected virus passages in cell culture revealed that the shift to VACV-like occurred between passage 11 and 20 and up to the 10th passage the genome still resembles wild-type virus. This observation was further confirmed by recombination analysis which indicated recombination events at ATIP and ORF185 genes occurred at higher passages. CONCLUSION We confirmed that the cell culture passage CMLV turns to resemble VACV after cell culture passage and concluded that the resemblance may not be a result of contamination or misidentification as previously thought but could be due to recombination events that occurred during the passage process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelmalik I. Khalafalla
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat, Khartoum North Sudan
- Corresponding Author: Abdelmalik Ibrahim Khalafalla. Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE.
| | - Mohamed A. Al Hosani
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Hassan Zackaria Ali Ishag
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Salama S. Al Muhairi
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
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Adam DC, Scotch M, MacIntyre CR. Bayesian Phylogeography and Pathogenic Characterization of Smallpox Based on HA, ATI, and CrmB Genes. Mol Biol Evol 2018; 35:2607-2617. [PMID: 30099520 PMCID: PMC6231489 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Variola virus is at risk of re-emergence either through accidental release, bioterrorism, or synthetic biology. The use of phylogenetics and phylogeography to support epidemic field response is expected to grow as sequencing technology becomes miniaturized, cheap, and ubiquitous. In this study, we aimed to explore the use of common VARV diagnostic targets hemagglutinin (HA), cytokine response modifier B (CrmB), and A-type inclusion protein (ATI) for phylogenetic characterization as well as the representativeness of modelling strategies in phylogeography to support epidemic response should smallpox re-emerge. We used Bayesian discrete-trait phylogeography using the most complete data set currently available of whole genome (n = 51) and partially sequenced (n = 20) VARV isolates. We show that multilocus models combining HA, ATI, and CrmB genes may represent a useful heuristic to differentiate between VARV Major and subclades of VARV Minor which have been associated with variable case-fatality rates. Where whole genome sequencing is unavailable, phylogeography models of HA, ATI, and CrmB may provide preliminary but uncertain estimates of transmission, while supplementing whole genome models with additional isolates sequenced only for HA can improve sample representativeness, maintaining similar support for transmission relative to whole genome models. We have also provided empirical evidence delineating historic international VARV transmission using phylogeography. Due to the persistent threat of re-emergence, our results provide important research for smallpox epidemic preparedness in the posteradication era as recommended by the World Health Organisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dillon C Adam
- Biosecurity Program, Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Matthew Scotch
- School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW
- Biodesign Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Biodesign Institute, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
| | - Chandini Raina MacIntyre
- Biosecurity Program, Kirby Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- College of Public Service and Community Solutions and College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ
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Okeke MI, Okoli AS, Diaz D, Offor C, Oludotun TG, Tryland M, Bøhn T, Moens U. Hazard Characterization of Modified Vaccinia Virus Ankara Vector: What Are the Knowledge Gaps? Viruses 2017; 9:v9110318. [PMID: 29109380 PMCID: PMC5707525 DOI: 10.3390/v9110318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Revised: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is the vector of choice for human and veterinary applications due to its strong safety profile and immunogenicity in vivo. The use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines against human and animal diseases must comply with regulatory requirements as they pertain to environmental risk assessment, particularly the characterization of potential adverse effects to humans, animals and the environment. MVA and recombinant MVA are widely believed to pose low or negligible risk to ecosystem health. However, key aspects of MVA biology require further research in order to provide data needed to evaluate the potential risks that may occur due to the use of MVA and MVA-vectored vaccines. The purpose of this paper is to identify knowledge gaps in the biology of MVA and recombinant MVA that are of relevance to its hazard characterization and discuss ongoing and future experiments aimed at providing data necessary to fill in the knowledge gaps. In addition, we presented arguments for the inclusion of uncertainty analysis and experimental investigation of verifiable worst-case scenarios in the environmental risk assessment of MVA and recombinant MVA. These will contribute to improved risk assessment of MVA and recombinant MVA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malachy I Okeke
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Arinze S Okoli
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Diana Diaz
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, University i Tromsø (UiT)-The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Collins Offor
- Department of Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, IMC University of Applied Sciences Piaristengasse 1, A-3500 Krems, Austria.
| | - Taiwo G Oludotun
- Department of Medical and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, IMC University of Applied Sciences Piaristengasse 1, A-3500 Krems, Austria.
| | - Morten Tryland
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
- Artic Infection Biology, Department of Artic and Marine Biology, UIT-The Artic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Thomas Bøhn
- Genome Editing Research Group, GenØk-Center for Biosafety, Siva Innovation Center, N-9294 Tromso, Norway.
| | - Ugo Moens
- Molecular Inflammation Research Group, Institute of Medical Biology, University i Tromsø (UiT)-The Arctic University of Norway, N-9037 Tromso, Norway.
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Classification of Cowpox Viruses into Several Distinct Clades and Identification of a Novel Lineage. Viruses 2017; 9:v9060142. [PMID: 28604604 PMCID: PMC5490819 DOI: 10.3390/v9060142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) was considered as uniform species within the genus Orthopoxvirus (OPV). Previous phylogenetic analysis indicated that CPXV is polyphyletic and isolates may cluster into different clades with two of these clades showing genetic similarities to either variola (VARV) or vaccinia viruses (VACV). Further analyses were initiated to assess both the genetic diversity and the evolutionary background of circulating CPXVs. Here we report the full-length sequences of 20 CPXV strains isolated from different animal species and humans in Germany. A phylogenetic analysis of altogether 83 full-length OPV genomes confirmed the polyphyletic character of the species CPXV and suggested at least four different clades. The German isolates from this study mainly clustered into two CPXV-like clades, and VARV- and VACV-like strains were not observed. A single strain, isolated from a cotton-top tamarin, clustered distantly from all other CPXVs and might represent a novel and unique evolutionary lineage. The classification of CPXV strains into clades roughly followed their geographic origin, with the highest clade diversity so far observed for Germany. Furthermore, we found evidence for recombination between OPV clades without significant disruption of the observed clustering. In conclusion, this analysis markedly expands the number of available CPXV full-length sequences and confirms the co-circulation of several CPXV clades in Germany, and provides the first data about a new evolutionary CPXV lineage.
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Mauldin MR, Antwerpen M, Emerson GL, Li Y, Zoeller G, Carroll DS, Meyer H. Cowpox virus: What's in a Name? Viruses 2017; 9:E101. [PMID: 28486428 PMCID: PMC5454414 DOI: 10.3390/v9050101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 05/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditionally, virus taxonomy relied on phenotypic properties; however, a sequence-based virus taxonomy has become essential since the recent requirement of a species to exhibit monophyly. The species Cowpox virus has failed to meet this requirement, necessitating a reexamination of this species. Here, we report the genomic sequences of nine Cowpox viruses and, by combining them with the available data of 37 additional genomes, confirm polyphyly of Cowpox viruses and find statistical support based on genetic data for more than a dozen species. These results are discussed in light of the current International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses species definition, as well as immediate and future implications for poxvirus taxonomic classification schemes. Data support the recognition of five monophyletic clades of Cowpox viruses as valid species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Mauldin
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, P.O. Box 117, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA.
| | - Markus Antwerpen
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Ginny L Emerson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Yu Li
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Gudrun Zoeller
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Darin S Carroll
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstr 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
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Out of the Reservoir: Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of a Novel Cowpox Virus Isolated from a Common Vole. J Virol 2015; 89:10959-69. [PMID: 26311891 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01195-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The incidence of human cowpox virus (CPXV) infections has increased significantly in recent years. Serological surveys have suggested wild rodents as the main CPXV reservoir. We characterized a CPXV isolated during a large-scale screening from a feral common vole. A comparison of the full-length DNA sequence of this CPXV strain with a highly virulent pet rat CPXV isolate showed a sequence identity of 96%, including a large additional open reading frame (ORF) of about 6,000 nucleotides which is absent in the reference CPXV strain Brighton Red. Electron microscopy analysis demonstrated that the vole isolate, in contrast to the rat strain, forms A-type inclusion (ATI) bodies with incorporated virions, consistent with the presence of complete ati and p4c genes. Experimental infections showed that the vole CPXV strain caused only mild clinical symptoms in its natural host, while all rats developed severe respiratory symptoms followed by a systemic rash. In contrast, common voles infected with a high dose of the rat CPXV showed severe signs of respiratory disease but no skin lesions, whereas infection with a low dose led to virus excretion with only mild clinical signs. We concluded that the common vole is susceptible to infection with different CPXV strains. The spectrum ranges from well-adapted viruses causing limited clinical symptoms to highly virulent strains causing severe respiratory symptoms. In addition, the low pathogenicity of the vole isolate in its eponymous host suggests a role of common voles as a major CPXV reservoir, and future research will focus on the correlation between viral genotype and phenotype/pathotype in accidental and reservoir species. IMPORTANCE We report on the first detection and isolation of CPXV from a putative reservoir host, which enables comparative analyses to understand the infection cycle of these zoonotic orthopox viruses and the relevant genes involved. In vitro studies, including whole-genome sequencing as well as in vivo experiments using the Wistar rat model and the vole reservoir host allowed us to establish links between genomic sequences and the in vivo properties (virulence) of the novel vole isolate in comparison to those of a recent zoonotic CPXV isolated from pet rats in 2009. Furthermore, the role of genes present only in a reservoir isolate can now be further analyzed. These studies therefore allow unique insights and conclusions about the role of the rodent reservoir in CPXV epidemiology and transmission and about the zoonotic threat that these viruses represent.
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Mosadeghhesari M, Oryan A, Zibaee S, Varshovi HR. Molecular investigation and cultivation of camelpox virus in Iran. Arch Virol 2014; 159:3005-11. [PMID: 25008899 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-014-2169-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Camelpox virus (genus Orthopoxvirus, family Poxviridae) is the etiologic agent of camel pox. The clinical manifestations of this virus range from inapparent infection to mild, moderate and, less commonly, severe systemic infection and death. Following an outbreak of camelpox, samples that were collected from camel flocks suspected to have camelpox in Qom Province in central Iran and Khash city, Sistan and Baluchestan Province and South Khorasan Province in eastern Iran were sent to Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute in Mashhad. DNA extraction was performed primarily by the phenol-chloroform method, and PCR was carried out using a Bioneer kit. Using the primer pair 5'-AAT-ACA-AGG-AGG-ATC-T-3' and 5'-CTT-AAC-TTT-TTC-TTT-CTC-3', the gene sequence encoding the A-type inclusion protein (ATIP) was amplified. The size of the PCR product, specific for camelpox virus, was 881 bp. The PCR product was purified, and to confirm its sequence, it was sent to the reference laboratory. The sequence was subjected to a BLAST search and then phylogenetically analyzed using CLC software. The results showed that all samples were nearly 100 % identical to each other and to strains CMS and M-96. These isolates also had 99 % and 95 % similarity to the CP-1 strain and isolate FIN/T2000, respectively. In Vero cell culture, inoculation with this virus caused a cytopathic effect (CPE), which appeared 2-5 days post-inoculation. Characteristic CPE showing foci of rounded cells, ballooning, giant-cell formation and syncytia with degenerative changes appeared.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Mosadeghhesari
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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Okeke MI, Okoli AS, Nilssen Ø, Moens U, Tryland M, Bøhn T, Traavik T. Molecular characterization and phylogenetics of Fennoscandian cowpox virus isolates based on the p4c and atip genes. Virol J 2014; 11:119. [PMID: 24972911 PMCID: PMC4112975 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-11-119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cowpox virus (CPXV), a rodent-borne Orthopoxvirus (OPV) that is indigenous to Eurasia can infect humans, cattle, felidae and other animals. Molecular characterization of CPXVs isolated from different geographic locations is important for the understanding of their biology, geographic distribution, classification and evolution. Our aim was to characterize CPXVs isolated from Fennoscandia on the basis of A-type inclusion (ATI) phenotype, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) profiles of atip gene fragment amplicon, and phylogenetic tree topology in conjunction with the patristic and genetic distances based on full length DNA sequence of the atip and p4c genes. Methods ATI phenotypes were determined by transmission electron microcopy and RFLP profiles were obtained by restriction enzyme digestion of the atip gene fragment PCR product. A 6.2 kbp region spanning the entire atip and p4c genes of Fennoscandian CPXV isolates was amplified and sequenced. The phylogenetic affinity of Fennoscandian CPXV isolates to OPVs isolated from other geographic regions was determined on the basis of the atip and p4c genes. Results Fennoscandian CPXV isolates encoded full length atip and p4c genes. They produce wild type V+ ATI except for CPXV-No-H2. CPXVs were resolved into six and seven species clusters based on the phylogeny of the atip and p4c genes respectively. The CPXVs isolated from Fennoscandia were grouped into three distinct clusters that corresponded to isolates from Norway, Sweden and Finland. Conclusion CPXV is a polyphyletic assemblage of six or seven distinct clusters and the current classification in which CPXVs are united as one single species should be re-considered. Our results are of significance to the classification and evolution of OPVs.
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Yousif AA, Al-Naeem AA. Recovery and molecular characterization of live Camelpox virus from skin 12 months after onset of clinical signs reveals possible mechanism of virus persistence in herds. Vet Microbiol 2012; 159:320-6. [PMID: 22595140 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2011] [Revised: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Potentially pathogenic orthopoxviruses (OPVs) persist in nature and re-emerge for reasons we do not fully understand. New information pertaining to Orthopoxvirus (OPV) persistence in nature would significantly improve surveillance and control programs. In a recent investigation of a Camelpox virus (CMLV) outbreak in Eastern Saudi Arabia, atypical minute pox-like skin lesions (AMPL) persisted on 42.9% of convalescent camels (8.8% of herd) for more than a year after the onset of clinical signs. In order to investigate whether AMPL were related to CMLV infection, AMPL homogenates were inoculated on the chorioallantoic membranes (CAM) of specific-pathogen-free (SPF) embryonating chicken eggs (ECE). Live CMLV was recovered from AMPL homogenates. The sequences of the ATIP gene of viruses isolated in the beginning of the outbreak, and one year later from AMPL were identical, and similar to the Kazakhstan isolate CMLV M-96. Virus identity was confirmed by sequence analysis of the CMLV A33R, A27L, B5R, and L1R orthologue genes. Uninfected adult camels that came in contact with animals showing AMPL became infected within two weeks. Since AMPL were easily missed by veterinarians and camel drivers, it was concluded that CMLV survival in persistent skin lesions may be a key mechanism in maintaining the virus in previously infected camel herds during inter-epizootic periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Yousif
- Central Biotechnology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsaa, Saudi Arabia.
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