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Boddé M, Makunin A, Teltscher F, Akorli J, Andoh NE, Bei A, Chaumeau V, Desamours I, Ekpo UF, Govella NJ, Kayondo J, Kobylinski K, Ngom EM, Niang EHA, Okumu F, Omitola OO, Ponlawat A, Rakotomanga MN, Rasolonjatovoniaina MT, Ayala D, Lawniczak M. Improved species assignments across the entire Anopheles genus using targeted sequencing. Front Genet 2024; 15:1456644. [PMID: 39364005 PMCID: PMC11446804 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2024.1456644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 10/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Accurate species identification of the mosquitoes in the genus Anopheles is of crucial importance to implement malaria control measures and monitor their effectiveness. We use a previously developed amplicon panel (ANOSPP) that retrieves sequence data from multiple short nuclear loci for any species in the genus. Species assignment is based on comparison of samples to a reference index using k-mer distance. Here, we provide a protocol to generate version controlled updates of the reference index and present its latest release, NNv2, which contains 91 species, compared to 56 species represented in its predecessor NNv1. With the updated reference index, we are able to assign samples to species level that previously could not be assigned. We discuss what happens if a species is not represented in the reference index and how this can be addressed in a future update. To demonstrate the increased power of NNv2, we showcase the assignments of 1789 wild-caught mosquitoes from Madagascar and demonstrate that we can detect within species population structure from the amplicon sequencing data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilou Boddé
- LIB Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change, Center for Molecular Biodiversity Research, Bonn, Germany
- Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Medical Entomology Unit, Antananarivo, Madagascar
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Tree of Life, Hinxton, United Kingdom
| | - Alex Makunin
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Tree of Life, Hinxton, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Teltscher
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Tree of Life, Hinxton, United Kingdom
| | - Jewelna Akorli
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, Accra, Ghana
| | - Nana Efua Andoh
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Amy Bei
- School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Victor Chaumeau
- Shoklo Malaria Research Unit, Mahidol Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Research, Mahidol University, Mae Ramat, Thailand
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ife Desamours
- School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Uwem F. Ekpo
- Department of Pure and Applied Zoology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | | | | | - Kevin Kobylinski
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - El Hadji Amadou Niang
- Laboratory of Vector and Parasite Ecology, Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar, Senegal
| | | | - Olaitan O. Omitola
- Department of Pure and Applied Zoology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
| | - Alongkot Ponlawat
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Science, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | | | - Diego Ayala
- Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, Medical Entomology Unit, Antananarivo, Madagascar
- Infectious Diseases and Vectors: Ecology, Genetics, Evolution and Control (MIVEGEC), University Montpellier, National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), Research and Development Institute (IRD), Montpellier, France
| | - Mara Lawniczak
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Tree of Life, Hinxton, United Kingdom
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Systematic Review on Diversity and Distribution of Anopheles Species in Gabon: A Fresh Look at the Potential Malaria Vectors and Perspectives. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11060668. [PMID: 35745522 PMCID: PMC9229970 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11060668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Gabon is located in the malaria hyper-endemic zone, where data concerning malaria vector distribution remains fragmentary, making it difficult to implement an effective vector control strategy. Thus, it becomes crucial and urgent to undertake entomological surveys that will allow a better mapping of the Anopheles species present in Gabon. In this review, we examined different articles dealing with Anopheles in Gabon from ProQuest, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google scholar databases. After applying the eligibility criteria to 7543 articles collected from four databases, 42 studies were included that covered a 91-year period of study. The review revealed a wide diversity of Anopheles species in Gabon with a heterogeneous distribution. Indeed, our review revealed the presence of 41 Anopheles species, of which the most abundant were members of the Gambiae and Nili complexes and those of the Funestus and Moucheti groups. However, our review also revealed that the major and minor vectors of malaria in Gabon are present in both sylvatic, rural, and urban environments. The observation of human malaria vectors in sylvatic environments raises the question of the role that the sylvatic environment may play in maintaining malaria transmission in rural and urban areas. Ultimately, it appears that knowledge of biodiversity and spatial distribution of Anopheles mosquitoes is fragmentary in Gabon, suggesting that additional studies are necessary to complete and update these entomological data, which are useful for the implementation of vector control strategies.
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Makunin A, Korlević P, Park N, Goodwin S, Waterhouse RM, von Wyschetzki K, Jacob CG, Davies R, Kwiatkowski D, St Laurent B, Ayala D, Lawniczak MKN. A targeted amplicon sequencing panel to simultaneously identify mosquito species and Plasmodium presence across the entire Anopheles genus. Mol Ecol Resour 2022; 22:28-44. [PMID: 34053186 PMCID: PMC7612955 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.13436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Anopheles is a diverse genus of mosquitoes comprising over 500 described species, including all known human malaria vectors. While a limited number of key vector species have been studied in detail, the goal of malaria elimination calls for surveillance of all potential vector species. Here, we develop a multilocus amplicon sequencing approach that targets 62 highly variable loci in the Anopheles genome and two conserved loci in the Plasmodium mitochondrion, simultaneously revealing both the mosquito species and whether that mosquito carries malaria parasites. We also develop a cheap, nondestructive, and high-throughput DNA extraction workflow that provides template DNA from single mosquitoes for the multiplex PCR, which means specimens producing unexpected results can be returned to for morphological examination. Over 1000 individual mosquitoes can be sequenced in a single MiSeq run, and we demonstrate the panel's power to assign species identity using sequencing data for 40 species from Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America. We also show that the approach can be used to resolve geographic population structure within An. gambiae and An. coluzzii populations, as the population structure determined based on these 62 loci from over 1000 mosquitoes closely mirrors that revealed through whole genome sequencing. The end-to-end approach is quick, inexpensive, robust, and accurate, which makes it a promising technique for very large-scale mosquito genetic surveillance and vector control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Makunin
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Petra Korlević
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | - Naomi Park
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Robert M Waterhouse
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, and Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Diego Ayala
- MIVEGEC, Univ. Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, Montpellier, France
- CIRMF, Franceville, Gabon
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Sallum MAM, Obando RG, Carrejo N, Wilkerson RC. Identification keys to the Anopheles mosquitoes of South America (Diptera: Culicidae). I. Introduction. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:583. [PMID: 33208196 PMCID: PMC7672812 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04298-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The worldwide genus Anopheles Meigen, 1918 is the only genus containing species evolved as vectors of human and simian malaria. Morbidity and mortality caused by Plasmodium Marchiafava & Celli, 1885 is tremendous, which has made these parasites and their vectors the objects of intense research aimed at mosquito identification, malaria control and elimination. DNA tools make the identification of Anopheles species both easier and more difficult. Easier in that putative species can nearly always be separated based on DNA data; more difficult in that attaching a scientific name to a species is often problematic because morphological characters are often difficult to interpret or even see; and DNA technology might not be available and affordable. Added to this are the many species that are either not yet recognized or are similar to, or identical with, named species. The first step in solving Anopheles identification problem is to attach a morphology-based formal or informal name to a specimen. These names are hypotheses to be tested with further morphological observations and/or DNA evidence. The overarching objective is to be able to communicate about a given species under study. In South America, morphological identification which is the first step in the above process is often difficult because of lack of taxonomic expertise and/or inadequate identification keys, written for local fauna, containing the most consequential species, or obviously, do not include species described subsequent to key publication. METHODS Holotypes and paratypes and other specimens deposited in the Coleção Entomológica de Referência, Faculdade de Saúde Pública (FSP-USP), Museo de Entomología, Universidad del Valle (MUSENUV) and the US National Mosquito Collection, Smithsonian Institution (USNMC) were examined and employed to illustrate the identification keys for female, male and fourth-instar larvae of Anopheles. RESULTS We presented, in four concurrent parts, introduction and three keys to aid the identification of South American Anopheles based on the morphology of the larvae, male genitalia and adult females, with the former two keys fully illustrated. CONCLUSIONS Taxonomic information and identification keys for species of the genus Anopheles are updated. The need for further morphology-based studies and description of new species are reinforced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Anice Mureb Sallum
- Departamento de Epidemiologia, Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Doutor Arnaldo 715, São Paulo, São Paulo CEP01246-904 Brazil
| | | | - Nancy Carrejo
- Departamento de Biología, Universidad del Valle, A.A 25360 Cali, Colombia
| | - Richard C. Wilkerson
- Department of Entomology, Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History (NMNH), Washington, DC 20560 USA
- Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit, Smithsonian Institution Museum Support Center, 4210 Silver Hill Rd., Suitland, MD 20746 USA
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA
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Coetzee M. Key to the females of Afrotropical Anopheles mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Malar J 2020; 19:70. [PMID: 32054502 PMCID: PMC7020601 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-020-3144-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In 1987, Gillies and Coetzee published a pictorial key for the morphological identification of adult female mosquitoes. Since then, several new species of anopheline mosquitoes have been described. Methods The 1987 key to adult female mosquitoes was used as the template for the current key. Results New species described in the literature over the past 32 years have been included. A list of all currently known Afrotropical species is provided. Anopheles stephensi is included for the first time as occurring on the African continent. Conclusions An updated key for the morphological identification of Afrotropical anopheline species is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen Coetzee
- Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. .,Centre for Emerging Zoonotic & Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa.
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Ayala D, Akone‐Ella O, Rahola N, Kengne P, Ngangue MF, Mezeme F, Makanga BK, Nigg M, Costantini C, Simard F, Prugnolle F, Roche B, Duron O, Paupy C. Natural Wolbachia infections are common in the major malaria vectors in Central Africa. Evol Appl 2019; 12:1583-1594. [PMID: 31462916 PMCID: PMC6708434 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
During the last decade, the endosymbiont bacterium Wolbachia has emerged as a biological tool for vector disease control. However, for long time, it was believed that Wolbachia was absent in natural populations of Anopheles. The recent discovery that species within the Anopheles gambiae complex host Wolbachia in natural conditions has opened new opportunities for malaria control research in Africa. Here, we investigated the prevalence and diversity of Wolbachia infection in 25 African Anopheles species in Gabon (Central Africa). Our results revealed the presence of Wolbachia in 16 of these species, including the major malaria vectors in this area. The infection prevalence varied greatly among species, confirming that sample size is a key factor to detect the infection. Moreover, our sequencing and phylogenetic analyses showed the important diversity of Wolbachia strains that infect Anopheles. Co-evolutionary analysis unveiled patterns of Wolbachia transmission within some Anopheles species, suggesting that past independent acquisition events were followed by co-cladogenesis. The large diversity of Wolbachia strains that infect natural populations of Anopheles offers a promising opportunity to select suitable phenotypes for suppressing Plasmodium transmission and/or manipulating Anopheles reproduction, which in turn could be used to reduce the malaria burden in Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Ayala
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRSUniversité de MontpellierMontpellierFrance
- CIRMFFrancevilleGabon
| | | | - Nil Rahola
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRSUniversité de MontpellierMontpellierFrance
- CIRMFFrancevilleGabon
| | - Pierre Kengne
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRSUniversité de MontpellierMontpellierFrance
- CIRMFFrancevilleGabon
| | | | | | | | - Martha Nigg
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRSUniversité de MontpellierMontpellierFrance
- CIRMFFrancevilleGabon
| | | | - Frédéric Simard
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRSUniversité de MontpellierMontpellierFrance
| | | | - Benjamin Roche
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRSUniversité de MontpellierMontpellierFrance
- UMMISCO, IRDMontpellierFrance
| | - Olivier Duron
- MIVEGEC, IRD, CNRSUniversité de MontpellierMontpellierFrance
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Rodent malaria in Gabon: Diversity and host range. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2019; 10:117-124. [PMID: 31453086 PMCID: PMC6702409 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2019.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Malaria parasites infect a wide range of vertebrate hosts, such as reptiles, birds and mammals (i.e., primates, ungulates, bats, and rodents). Four Plasmodium species and their subspecies infect African Muridae. Since their discoveries in the 1940s, these rodent Plasmodium species have served as biological models to explore many aspects of the biology of malaria agents and their interactions with their hosts. Despite that, surprisingly, little is known about their ecology, natural history and evolution. Most field studies on these parasites, performed from the 1940s to the early 1980s, showed that all rodent Plasmodium species infect only one main host species, the thicket rat. In the present study, we re-explored the diversity of Plasmodium parasites infecting rodent species living in peridomestic habitats in Gabon, Central Africa. Using molecular approaches, we found that at least two Plasmodium species (Plasmodium vinckei and Plasmodium yoelii) circulated among five rodent species (including the invasive species Mus musculus). This suggests that the host range of these parasites might be larger than previously considered. Our results also showed that the diversity of these parasites could be higher than currently recognized, with the discovery of a new phylogenetic lineage that could represent a new species of rodent Plasmodium. Circulation of at least two Plasmodium species in multiple rodent species in Gabon. African rodent Plasmodium host range is higher than previously recognized. Existence of a potentially new Plasmodium species (Plasmodium sp GAB), closely related to Plasmodium yoelii.
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Ape malaria transmission and potential for ape-to-human transfers in Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:5329-34. [PMID: 27071123 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1603008113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have highlighted the large diversity of malaria parasites infecting African great apes (subgenus Laverania) and their strong host specificity. Although the existence of genetic incompatibilities preventing the cross-species transfer may explain host specificity, the existence of vectors with a high preference for a determined host represents another possibility. To test this hypothesis, we undertook a 15-mo-long longitudinal entomological survey in two forest regions of Gabon, where wild apes live, at different heights under the canopy. More than 2,400 anopheline mosquitoes belonging to 18 species were collected. Among them, only three species of Anopheles were found infected with ape Plasmodium: Anopheles vinckei, Anopheles moucheti, and Anopheles marshallii Their role in transmission was confirmed by the detection of the parasites in their salivary glands. Among these species, An. vinckei showed significantly the highest prevalence of infection and was shown to be able to transmit parasites of both chimpanzees and gorillas. Transmission was also shown to be conditioned by seasonal factors and by the heights of capture under the canopy. Moreover, human landing catches of sylvan Anopheles demonstrated the propensity of these three vector species to feed on humans when available. Our results suggest therefore that the strong host specificity observed in the Laveranias is not linked to a specific association between the vertebrate host and the vector species and highlight the potential role of these vectors as bridge between apes and humans.
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Boundenga L, Makanga B, Ollomo B, Gilabert A, Rougeron V, Mve-Ondo B, Arnathau C, Durand P, Moukodoum ND, Okouga AP, Delicat-Loembet L, Yacka-Mouele L, Rahola N, Leroy E, BA CT, Renaud F, Prugnolle F, Paupy C. Haemosporidian Parasites of Antelopes and Other Vertebrates from Gabon, Central Africa. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148958. [PMID: 26863304 PMCID: PMC4749209 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Re-examination, using molecular tools, of the diversity of haemosporidian parasites (among which the agents of human malaria are the best known) has generally led to rearrangements of traditional classifications. In this study, we explored the diversity of haemosporidian parasites infecting vertebrate species (particularly mammals, birds and reptiles) living in the forests of Gabon (Central Africa), by analyzing a collection of 492 bushmeat samples. We found that samples from five mammalian species (four duiker and one pangolin species), one bird and one turtle species were infected by haemosporidian parasites. In duikers (from which most of the infected specimens were obtained), we demonstrated the existence of at least two distinct parasite lineages related to Polychromophilus species (i.e., bat haemosporidian parasites) and to sauropsid Plasmodium (from birds and lizards). Molecular screening of sylvatic mosquitoes captured during a longitudinal survey revealed the presence of these haemosporidian parasite lineages also in several Anopheles species, suggesting a potential role in their transmission. Our results show that, differently from what was previously thought, several independent clades of haemosporidian parasites (family Plasmodiidae) infect mammals and are transmitted by anopheline mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larson Boundenga
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Management of Ecosystems, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar, Dakar, Senegal
- * E-mail: (LB); (FP)
| | - Boris Makanga
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
- Institut de Recherche en Ecologie Tropicale, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Benjamin Ollomo
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
| | - Aude Gilabert
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
| | - Virginie Rougeron
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
| | - Bertrand Mve-Ondo
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
| | - Céline Arnathau
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
| | - Patrick Durand
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
| | - Nancy Diamella Moukodoum
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
| | - Alain-Prince Okouga
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
| | - Lucresse Delicat-Loembet
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
| | - Lauriane Yacka-Mouele
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
| | - Nil Rahola
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
| | - Eric Leroy
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
| | - Cheikh Tidiane BA
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Management of Ecosystems, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Francois Renaud
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
| | - Franck Prugnolle
- Centre International de Recherches Médicales de Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville, Gabon BP 769 Franceville, Gabon
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
- * E-mail: (LB); (FP)
| | - Christophe Paupy
- Laboratoire MIVEGEC, UMR 224–5290 IRD-CNRS-UM, Centre IRD de Montpellier, 34295 Montpellier, France
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