Facilitated ion transport through polyelectrolyte multilayer films containing metal-binding ligands

Precise Cation Separations with Composite Cation-Exchange Membranes: Role of Base Layer Properties

Separation of specific ions from water could enable recovery and reuse of essential metals and nutrients, but established membrane technologies lack the high-precision selectivity needed to facilitate a circular resource economy. In this work, we investigate whether the cation/cation selectivity of a composite cation-exchange membrane (CEM), or a thin polymer selective layer on top of a CEM, may be limited by the mass transfer resistance of the underlying CEM. In our analysis, we utilize a layer-by-layer technique to modify CEMs with a thin polymer selective layer (∼50 nm) that has previously shown high selectivity toward copper over similarly sized metals. While these composite membranes have a CuCl₂/MgCl₂ selectivity up to 33 times larger than unmodified CEMs in diffusion dialysis, our estimates suggest that eliminating resistance from the underlying CEM could further increase selectivity twofold. In contrast, the CEM base layer has a smaller effect on the selectivity of these composite membranes in electrodialysis, although these effects could become more pronounced for ultrathin or highly conductive selective layers. Our results highlight that base layer resistance prevents selectivity factors from being comparable across diffusion dialysis and electrodialysis, and CEMs with low resistance are necessary for providing highly precise separations with composite CEMs.

Switchable Na+ and K+ selectivity in an amino acid functionalized 2D covalent organic framework membrane

Biological cell membranes can efficiently switch Na⁺/K⁺ selectivity in response to external stimuli, but achieving analogous functions in a single artificial membrane is challenging. Here, we report highly crystalline covalent organic framework (COF) membranes with well-defined nanochannels and coordinative sites (i. e., amino acid) that act as ion-selective switches to manipulate Na⁺ and K⁺ transport. The ion selectivity of the COF membrane is dynamic and can be switched between K⁺-selective and Na⁺-selective in a single membrane by applying a pH stimulus. The experimental results combined with molecular dynamics simulations reveal that the switchable Na⁺/K⁺ selectivity originates from the differentiated coordination interactions between ions and amino acids. Benefiting from the switchable Na⁺/K⁺ selectivity, we further demonstrate the membrane potential switches by varying electrolyte pH, miming the membrane polarity reversal during neural signal transduction in vivo, suggesting the great potential of these membranes for in vitro biomimetic applications.

Mining Critical Metals from Seawater by Subnanostructured Membranes: Is It Viable?

The continuous demand for energy-critical elements such as lithium, cobalt, uranium and so on will soon exceed their availability increasing further their significance of geopolitical resources. Seawater is a relevant, not conventional source of critical metals. Synthetic membranes with subnanometer pores are the core of processes such as desalination for separating solutes from water. These membrane processes have achieved remarkable success at industrial level. However, state-of-the-art desalination membranes cannot selectively separate a single metal ion from a mixture of ions. In this review the challenges of membranes with subnanometer pores to selectivity discriminate among different metal ions are briefly discussed. The key points of the molecular-level mechanism that contribute to energy barrier for ions transport through subnanometer pores are highlighted to provide guidelines for the design of single-metal ion selective membranes.

Designing polymeric membranes with coordination chemistry for high-precision ion separations

State-of-the-art polymeric membranes are unable to perform the high-precision ion separations needed for technologies essential to a circular economy and clean energy future. Coordinative interactions are a mechanism to increase sorption of a target species into a membrane, but the effects of these interactions on membrane permeability and selectivity are poorly understood. We use a multilayered polymer membrane to assess how ion-membrane binding energies affect membrane permeability of similarly sized cations: Cu²⁺, Ni²⁺, Zn²⁺, Co²⁺, and Mg²⁺. We report that metals with higher binding energy to iminodiacetate groups of the polymer more selectively permeate through the membrane in multisalt solutions than single-salt solutions. In contrast, weaker binding species are precluded from diffusing into the polymer membrane, which leads to passage proportional to binding energy and independent of membrane thickness. Our findings demonstrate that selectivity of polymeric membranes can markedly increase by tailoring ion-membrane binding energy and minimizing membrane thickness.

Membrane Materials for Selective Ion Separations at the Water-Energy Nexus

Synthetic polymer membranes are enabling components in key technologies at the water-energy nexus, including desalination and energy conversion, because of their high water/salt selectivity or ionic conductivity. However, many applications at the water-energy nexus require ion selectivity, or separation of specific ionic species from other similar species. Here, the ion selectivity of conventional polymeric membrane materials is assessed and recent progress in enhancing selective transport via tailored free volume elements and ion-membrane interactions is described. In view of the limitations of polymeric membranes, three material classes-porous crystalline materials, 2D materials, and discrete biomimetic channels-are highlighted as possible candidates for ion-selective membranes owing to their molecular-level control over physical and chemical properties. Lastly, research directions and critical challenges for developing bioinspired membranes with molecular recognition are provided.

Towards single-species selectivity of membranes with subnanometre pores

Synthetic membranes with pores at the subnanometre scale are at the core of processes for separating solutes from water, such as water purification and desalination. While these membrane processes have achieved substantial industrial success, the capability of state-of-the-art membranes to selectively separate a single solute from a mixture of solutes is limited. Such high-precision separation would enable fit-for-purpose treatment, improving the sustainability of current water-treatment processes and opening doors for new applications of membrane technologies. Herein, we introduce the challenges of state-of-the-art membranes with subnanometre pores to achieve high selectivity between solutes. We then analyse experimental and theoretical literature to discuss the molecular-level mechanisms that contribute to energy barriers for solute transport through subnanometre pores. We conclude by providing principles and guidelines for designing next-generation single-species selective membranes that are inspired by ion-selective biological channels.

Nanoporous Anodic Alumina Photonic Crystals for Optical Chemo- and Biosensing: Fundamentals, Advances, and Perspectives

Optical sensors are a class of devices that enable the identification and/or quantification of analyte molecules across multiple fields and disciplines such as environmental protection, medical diagnosis, security, food technology, biotechnology, and animal welfare. Nanoporous photonic crystal (PC) structures provide excellent platforms to develop such systems for a plethora of applications since these engineered materials enable precise and versatile control of light⁻matter interactions at the nanoscale. Nanoporous PCs provide both high sensitivity to monitor in real-time molecular binding events and a nanoporous matrix for selective immobilization of molecules of interest over increased surface areas. Nanoporous anodic alumina (NAA), a nanomaterial long envisaged as a PC, is an outstanding platform material to develop optical sensing systems in combination with multiple photonic technologies. Nanoporous anodic alumina photonic crystals (NAA-PCs) provide a versatile nanoporous structure that can be engineered in a multidimensional fashion to create unique PC sensing platforms such as Fabry⁻Pérot interferometers, distributed Bragg reflectors, gradient-index filters, optical microcavities, and others. The effective medium of NAA-PCs undergoes changes upon interactions with analyte molecules. These changes modify the NAA-PCs' spectral fingerprints, which can be readily quantified to develop different sensing systems. This review introduces the fundamental development of NAA-PCs, compiling the most significant advances in the use of these optical materials for chemo- and biosensing applications, with a final prospective outlook about this exciting and dynamic field.

Preparation of polyelectrolyte-modified membranes for heavy metal ions removal

Polyethersulfone membranes were modified by polyelectrolyte (PE) multilayers, made of poly(allylamine hydrochloride) with poly(styrene sulfonate), to remove Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺ and Ni²⁺ heavy metal cations from aqueous solutions in a wide range of metal concentration (50-1200 ppm). After characterization of the modified membranes, the efficiency of the process was estimated for single heavy metal ions solution leading to high rejection rates (>90% for 50 ppm) and good adsorption capacities (7.0-8.5 mg cm^-2) whatever the metal ion tested. The stability in time of the modified membranes was proved by repeating successive filtrations with the same membrane. The filtration process was also used with mixed solutions composed of Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺ and Ni²⁺ ions. The rejection rates obtained for these ternary systems were very similar to the ones obtained for the single metal solutions, showing that the filtration process is still efficient for mixed solutions and can be applied for the decontamination of complex solutions. The long-term stability of the modified membranes was also demonstrated for mixed solutions. The high efficiency of the filtration process and the good adsorption capacities of the modified membranes are due to the ability of the PEs used to complex all the metallic dications tested in this study.

Layer-by-Layer Deposition with Polymers Containing Nitrilotriacetate, A Convenient Route to Fabricate Metal- and Protein-Binding Films

This paper describes a convenient synthesis of nitrilotriacetate (NTA)-containing polymers and subsequent layer-by-layer adsorption of these polymers on flat surfaces and in membrane pores. The resulting films form NTA-metal-ion complexes and capture 2-3 mmol of metal ions per mL of film. Moreover, these coatings bind multilayers of polyhistidine-tagged proteins through association with NTA-metal-ion complexes. Inclusion of acrylic acid repeat units in NTA-containing copolymers promotes swelling to increase protein binding in films on Au-coated wafers. Adsorption of NTA-containing films in porous nylon membranes gives materials that capture ∼46 mg of His-tagged ubiquitin per mL. However, the binding capacity decreases with the protein molecular weight. Due to the high affinity of NTA for metal ions, the modified membranes show modest leaching of Ni(2+) in binding and rinsing buffers. Adsorption of NTA-containing polymers is a simple method to create metal- and protein-binding films and may, with future enhancement of stability, facilitate development of disposable membranes that rapidly purify tagged proteins.

Nanostructured Membranes from Triblock Polymer Precursors as High Capacity Copper Adsorbents

Membrane adsorbers are a proposed alternative to packed beds for chromatographic separations. To date, membrane adsorbers have suffered from low binding capacities and/or complex processing methodologies. In this work, a polyisoprene-b-polystyrene-b-poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) (PI-PS-PDMA) triblock polymer is cast into an asymmetric membrane that possesses a high density of nanopores (d ∼ 38 nm) at the upper surface of the membrane. Exposing the membrane to a 6 M aqueous hydrochloric acid solution converts the PDMA brushes that line the pore walls to poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) brushes, which are capable of binding metal ions (e.g., copper ions). Using mass transport tests and static binding experiments, the saturation capacity of the PI-PS-PAA membrane was determined to be 4.1 ± 0.3 mmol Cu(2+) g(-1). This experimental value is consistent with the theoretical binding capacity of the membranes, which is based on the initial PDMA content of the triblock polymer precursor and assumes a 1:1 stoichiometry for the binding interaction. The uniformly sized nanoscale pores provide a short diffusion length to the binding sites, resulting in a sharp breakthrough curve. Furthermore, the membrane is selective for copper ions over nickel ions, which permeate through the membrane over 10 times more rapidly than copper during the loading stage. This selectivity is present despite the fact that the sizes of these two ions are nearly identical and speaks to the chemical selectivity of the triblock polymer-based membrane. Furthermore, addition of a pH 1 solution releases the bound copper rapidly, allowing the membrane to be regenerated and reused with a negligible loss in binding capacity. Because of the high binding capacities, facile processing method implemented, and ability to tailor further the polymer brushes lining the pore walls using straightforward coupling reactions, these membrane adsorbers based on block polymer precursors have potential as a separation media that can be designed to a variety of specific applications.

Immobilization of carboxymethylated polyethylenimine-metal-ion complexes in porous membranes to selectively capture his-tagged protein

Membrane adsorbers rapidly capture tagged proteins because flow through membrane pores efficiently conveys proteins to binding sites. Effective adsorbers, however, require membrane pores coated with thin films that bind multilayers of proteins. This work employs adsorption of polyelectrolytes that chelate metal ions to create functionalized membranes that selectively capture polyhistidine-tagged (His-tagged) proteins with binding capacities equal to those of high-binding commercial beads. Adsorption of functional polyelectrolytes is simpler than previous membrane-modification strategies such as growth of polymer brushes or derivatization of adsorbed layers with chelating moieties. Sequential adsorption of protonated poly(allylamine) (PAH) and carboxymethylated branched polyethylenimine (CMPEI) leads to membranes that bind Ni(2+) and capture ∼60 mg of His-tagged ubiquitin per mL of membrane. Moreover, these membranes enable isolation of His-tagged protein from cell lysates in <15 min. The backbone amine groups in CMPEI likely increase swelling in water to double protein binding compared to films composed of PAH and the chelating polymer poly[(N,N-dicarboxymethyl)allylamine] (PDCMAA), which has a hydrocarbon backbone. Metal leaching from PAH/CMPEI- and PAH/PDCMAA-modified membranes is similar to that from GE Hitrap FF columns. Eluates with 0.5 M imidazole contain <10 ppm of Ni(2+).

Mixed mosaic membranes prepared by layer-by-layer assembly for ionic separations

Charge mosaic membranes, which possess distinct cationic and anionic domains that traverse the membrane thickness, are capable of selectively separating dissolved salts from similarly sized neutral solutes. Here, the generation of charge mosaic membranes using facile layer-by-layer assembly methodologies is reported. Polymeric nanotubes with pore walls lined by positively charged polyethylenimine moieties or negatively charged poly(styrenesulfonate) moieties were prepared via layer-by-layer assembly using track-etched membranes as sacrificial templates. Subsequently, both types of nanotubes were deposited on a porous support in order to produce mixed mosaic membranes. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrates that the facile deposition techniques implemented result in nanotubes that are vertically aligned without overlap between adjacent elements. Furthermore, the nanotubes span the thickness of the mixed mosaic membranes. The effects of this unique nanostructure are reflected in the transport characteristics of the mixed mosaic membranes. The hydraulic permeability of the mixed mosaic membranes in piezodialysis operations was 8 L m(-2) h(-1) bar(-1). Importantly, solute rejection experiments demonstrate that the mixed mosaic membranes are more permeable to ionic solutes than similarly sized neutral molecules. In particular, negative rejection of sodium chloride is observed (i.e., the concentration of NaCl in the solution that permeates through a mixed mosaic membrane is higher than in the initial feed solution). These properties illustrate the ability of mixed mosaic membranes to permeate dissolved ions selectively without violating electroneutrality and suggest their utility in ionic separations.

pH-sensitive membranes prepared with poly(methyl methacrylate) grafted poly(vinylidene fluoride) via ultraviolet irradiation-induced atom transfer radical polymerization

Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation induced atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) was performed to graft poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) onto poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) and obtain copolymer (PVDF-g-PMMA).