1
|
Thiévent K, Szentiványi T, Aeby S, Glaizot O, Christe P, Greub G. Presence and diversity of Chlamydiae bacteria in Spinturnix myoti, an ectoparasite of bats. Parasite 2020; 27:54. [PMID: 33135998 PMCID: PMC7605392 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2020052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia spp. and Chlamydia-like organisms are able to infect vertebrates such as mammals, reptiles and birds, but also arthropods and protozoans. Since they have been detected in bats and bat feces, we expected Chlamydiae bacteria to also be present in the mite Spinturnix myoti, an ectoparasite of mouse-eared bats (Myotis spp.). The prevalence of Chlamydiales in 88 S. myoti was 57.95% and significantly depended on bat host species. In addition, the prevalence was significantly different between bat species living in sympatry or in allopatry. While there was uninterpretable sequencing for 16 samples, eight showed best BLAST hit identities lower than 92.5% and thus corresponded to new family-level lineages according to the established taxonomy cut-off. The four remaining sequences exhibited best BLAST hit identities ranging from 94.2 to 97.4% and were taxonomically assigned to three different family-level lineages, with two of them belonging to the Parachlamydiaceae, one to the Simkaniaceae, and one to the Chlamydiaceae. These results highlighted for the first time the presence of Chlamydia-like organisms and the possible zoonotic origin of Chlamydia sp. in S. myoti ectoparasites of bats, and therefore suggest that these ectoparasites may play a role in maintaining and/or transmitting members of the Chlamydiae phylum within Myotis spp. bat populations. Our results further highlight that the wide diversity of bacteria belonging to the Chlamydiae phylum is largely underestimated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Thiévent
- Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria (CRIB), Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne 1011 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Tamara Szentiványi
- Museum of Zoology 1005 Lausanne Switzerland
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Sébastien Aeby
- Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria (CRIB), Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne 1011 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Olivier Glaizot
- Museum of Zoology 1005 Lausanne Switzerland
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Philippe Christe
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Gilbert Greub
- Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria (CRIB), Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne 1011 Lausanne Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Baccari O, Elleuch J, Barkallah M, Boukedi H, Ayed NB, Hammami A, Fendri I, Abdelkafi S. Development of a new TaqMan-based PCR assay for the specific detection and quantification of Simkania negevensis. Mol Cell Probes 2020; 53:101645. [PMID: 32745685 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2020.101645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Simkania negevensis is an emerging Chlamydia-like bacterium related to human respiratory diseases. An early and accurate detection of this pathogen could be useful to monitor the potential infectious risks and to set suitable outbreak control measures. In Tunisia, distribution and abundance of S. negevensis remain until now largely unknown. In the present work, a qPCR assay, targeting the 16S rRNA gene, for fast detection and quantification of S. negevensis was developed and validated. A high specificity for S. negevensis detection displaying no cross-reaction with the closely related Chlamydia spp. or the other tested microorganisms was noticed. qPCR assay performance was considered very satisfying with detection limits of 5 DNA copies per reaction. qPCR assay validation was performed by screening 37 clinical specimens and 35 water samples. S. negevensis wasn't detected in respiratory samples, but it was found in four cases of water samples. We suggest that the qPCR assay developed in this study could be considered sufficiently characterized to initiate the quantification of S. negevensis in environmental samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olfa Baccari
- Laboratoire de Génie Enzymatique et Microbiologie, Equipe Biotechnologie des Algues, Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Jihen Elleuch
- Laboratoire de Génie Enzymatique et Microbiologie, Equipe Biotechnologie des Algues, Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia.
| | - Mohamed Barkallah
- Laboratoire de Génie Enzymatique et Microbiologie, Equipe Biotechnologie des Algues, Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Hanen Boukedi
- Laboratory of Biopesticides, Biotechnology Center of Sfax, University of Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Nourelhouda Ben Ayed
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine of Sfax, Habib Bourguiba University Hospital, University of Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Adnene Hammami
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine of Sfax, Habib Bourguiba University Hospital, University of Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Imen Fendri
- Laboratory of Plant Biotechnology Applied to the Improvement of Cultures, Faculty of Science of Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Slim Abdelkafi
- Laboratoire de Génie Enzymatique et Microbiologie, Equipe Biotechnologie des Algues, Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Transcriptional Expression of the ompA, cpaf, tarp, and tox Genes of Chlamydia trachomatis Clinical Isolates at Different Stages of the Developmental Cycle. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7060153. [PMID: 31141911 PMCID: PMC6617244 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7060153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The transcriptional gene expression patterns of Chlamydia trachomatis have mainly been studied using reference strains propagated in cultured cells. Here, using five low-passage-number C. trachomatis clinical isolates that originated from asymptomatic or symptomatic female patients, the in vitro expression of the ompA, cpaf, tarp, and tox genes was studied with reverse transcriptase real-time PCR during the chlamydial developmental cycle. We observed dissimilarities in the gene expression patterns between the low-passage-number clinical isolates and the reference strains. The expression of ompA and the peak of the tox expression were observed earlier in the reference strains than in most of the clinical isolates. The expression of cpaf was high in the reference strains compared with the clinical isolates at the mid-phase (6–24 hours post infection) of the developmental cycle. All of the strains had a rather similar tarp expression profile. Four out of five clinical isolates exhibited slower growth kinetics compared with the reference strains. The use of low-passage-number C. trachomatis clinical isolates instead of reference strains in the studies might better reflect the situation in human infection.
Collapse
|
4
|
Hokynar K, Kurkela S, Nieminen T, Saxen H, Vesterinen EJ, Mannonen L, Pietikäinen R, Puolakkainen M. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae Detected during a Pneumonia Outbreak in Southeastern Finland, in 2017⁻2018. Microorganisms 2019; 7:E141. [PMID: 31108956 PMCID: PMC6560421 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7050141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a common disease responsible for significant morbidity and mortality. However, the definite etiology of CAP often remains unresolved, suggesting that unknown agents of pneumonia remain to be identified. The recently discovered members of the order Chlamydiales, Chlamydia-related bacteria (CRB), are considered as possible emerging agents of CAP. Parachlamydia acanthamoebae is the most studied candidate. It survives and replicates inside free-living amoeba, which it might potentially use as a vehicle to infect animals and humans. A Mycoplasma pneumoniae outbreak was observed in Kymenlaakso region in Southeastern Finland during August 2017-January 2018. We determined the occurrence of Chlamydiales bacteria and their natural host, free-living amoeba in respiratory specimens collected during this outbreak with molecular methods. Altogether, 22/278 (7.9%) of the samples contained Chlamydiales DNA. By sequence analysis, majority of the CRBs detected were members of the Parachlamydiaceae family. Amoebal DNA was not detected within the sample material. Our study further proposes that Parachlamydiaceae could be a potential agent causing atypical CAP in children and adolescents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kati Hokynar
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Satu Kurkela
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Tea Nieminen
- Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki, FI-00029 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Harri Saxen
- Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki, FI-00029 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Eero J Vesterinen
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007 Uppsala, Sweden.
- Biodiversity Unit, University of Turku, FI-20014 Turku, Finland.
| | - Laura Mannonen
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Risto Pietikäinen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Kymenlaakso Central Hospital, FI-48210 Kotka, Finland.
| | - Mirja Puolakkainen
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vajana E, Widmer I, Rochat E, Duruz S, Selmoni O, Vuilleumier S, Aeby S, Greub G, Joost S. Indication of spatially random occurrence of Chlamydia-like organisms in Bufo bufo tadpoles from ponds located in the Geneva metropolitan area. New Microbes New Infect 2018; 27:54-63. [PMID: 30622711 PMCID: PMC6307092 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Occurrence of bacteria belonging to the order Chlamydiales was investigated for the first time in common toad (Bufo bufo) tadpole populations collected from 41 ponds in the Geneva metropolitan area, Switzerland. A Chlamydiales-specific real-time PCR was used to detect and amplify the Chlamydiales 16S ribosomal RNA–encoding gene from the tails of 375 tadpoles. We found the studied amphibian populations to host Chlamydia-like organisms (CLOs) attributable to the genera Similichlamydia, Neochlamydia, Protochlamydia and Parachlamydia (all belonging to the family Parachlamydiaceae), Simkania (family Simkaniaceae) and Estrella (family Criblamydiaceae); additionally, DNA from the genus Thermoanaerobacter (family Thermoanaerobacteriaceae) was detected. Global autocorrelation analysis did not reveal a spatial structure in the observed CLOs occurrence rates, and association tests involving land cover characteristics did not evidence any clear effect on CLOs occurrence rates in B. bufo. Although preliminary, these results suggest a random and ubiquitous distribution of CLOs in the environment, which would support the biogeographical expectation ‘everything is everywhere’ for the concerned microorganisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Vajana
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - I Widmer
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.,Swiss Academy of Sciences SCNAT, Swiss Biodiversity Forum, Bern, Switzerland
| | - E Rochat
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - S Duruz
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - O Selmoni
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland
| | - S Vuilleumier
- La Source, School of Nursing, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Western Switzerland (HES-SO), Switzerland
| | - S Aeby
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Lausanne and University Hospital Center, Switzerland
| | - G Greub
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Lausanne and University Hospital Center, Switzerland
| | - S Joost
- Laboratory of Geographic Information Systems (LASIG), School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Switzerland.,Unit of Population Epidemiology, Division of Primary Care Medicine, Department of Community Medicine, Primary Care and Emergency Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland.,Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Detection of Chlamydiaceae and Chlamydia-like organisms on the ocular surface of children and adults from a trachoma-endemic region. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7432. [PMID: 29743637 PMCID: PMC5943520 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23887-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Trachoma, the leading infectious cause of blindness, is caused by Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct), a bacterium of the phylum Chlamydiae. Recent investigations revealed the existence of additional families within the phylum Chlamydiae, also termed Chlamydia-like organisms (CLOs). In this study, the frequency of Ct and CLOs was examined in the eyes of healthy Sudanese (control) participants and those with trachoma (case). We tested 96 children (54 cases and 42 controls) and 93 adults (51 cases and 42 controls) using broad-range Chlamydiae and Ct-specific (omcB) real-time PCR. Samples positive by broad-range Chlamydiae testing were subjected to DNA sequencing. Overall Chlamydiae prevalence was 36%. Sequences corresponded to unclassified and classified Chlamydiae. Ct infection rate was significantly higher in children (31.5%) compared to adults (0%) with trachoma (p < 0.0001). In general, 21.5% of adults and 4.2% of children tested positive for CLOs (p = 0.0003). Our findings are consistent with previous investigations describing the central role of Ct in trachoma among children. This is the first study examining human eyes for the presence of CLOs. We found an age-dependent distribution of CLO DNA in human eyes with significantly higher positivity in adults. Further studies are needed to understand the impact of CLOs in trachoma pathogenicity and/or protection.
Collapse
|
7
|
Vouga M, Kebbi-Beghdadi C, Liénard J, Baskin L, Baud D, Greub G. What is the true clinical relevance of Simkania negevensis and other emerging Chlamydiales members? New Microbes New Infect 2018; 23:1-5. [PMID: 29692903 PMCID: PMC5913364 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2018.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2017] [Revised: 01/06/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Waddlia chondrophila and Simkania negevensis are emerging Chlamydia-related bacteria. Similar to the pathogenic organisms Chlamydia pneumoniae and Chlamydia trachomatis, these emerging bacteria are implicated in human genital infections and respiratory diseases. We used a screening strategy based on a newly developed S. negevensis–specific quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and a pan-Chlamydiales qPCR. We could not detect S. negevensis in 458 respiratory, genitourinary, cardiac and hepatic samples tested. One urethral swab was positive for W. chondrophila. We observed a low prevalence of Chlamydiales in respiratory samples (1/200, 0.5%), which suggests that C. pneumoniae is an uncommon respiratory pathogen. Furthermore, we screened 414 human serum samples from Switzerland, England and Israel and observed a low prevalence (<1%) of exposure to S. negevensis. Conversely, humans were commonly exposed to W. chondrophila, with seroprevalences ranging from 8.6% to 32.5%. S. negevensis is not a clinically relevant pathogen, but further research investigating the role of W. chondrophila is needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M. Vouga
- Materno-fetal and Obstetrics Research Unit, Department “Femme-Mére-Enfant”, University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - C. Kebbi-Beghdadi
- Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - J. Liénard
- Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - L. Baskin
- Virology Laboratory, Rambam Health Care Campus, Haifa, Israel
| | - D. Baud
- Materno-fetal and Obstetrics Research Unit, Department “Femme-Mére-Enfant”, University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - G. Greub
- Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
- Infectious Disease Service, University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Corresponding author: G. Greub, Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Bugnon 48, CH-1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chlamydia trachomatis and chlamydia-like bacteria: new enemies of human pregnancies. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2018; 30:289-296. [PMID: 28306562 DOI: 10.1097/qco.0000000000000369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review provides an update on the roles of Chlamydia trachomatis and the related Waddlia chondrophila and Parachlamydia acanthamoebae in miscarriage, stillbirths and preterm labour in humans. A broad audience, including microbiologist, infectiologists, obstetricians and gynaecologists, should be aware of the potential threat of these Chlamydiales for human reproduction. RECENT FINDINGS Despite increasing laboratory techniques and possibilities to perform diagnostic tests, the cause of miscarriage is only identified in 50% of the cases. Intracellular bacteria, such as C. trachomatis and Chlamydia-related bacteria, are difficult to detect in routine clinical samples and could represent possible agents of miscarriages. C. trachomatis is considered the world largest sexual transmitted bacterial agent and is associated with adverse pregnancy outcome in human. In the last decade Chlamydia-like organisms, such as W. chondrophila and P. acanthamoebae, have also been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes in human and/or animals. SUMMARY We review here the current evidences for a pathogenic role in humans, the diagnostic approaches and possible treatment options of C. trachomatis, W. chondrophila and P. acanthamoebae.
Collapse
|
9
|
Al-Younes HM, Al-Zereini W, Obeidat NM. Molecular evidence for the absence of an association between Simkania negevensis and respiratory diseases. J Med Microbiol 2017; 66:1324-1327. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hesham M. Al-Younes
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, the University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
| | - Wael Al-Zereini
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Mutah University, Al-Karak, Jordan
| | - Nathir M. Obeidat
- Department of Respiratory and Sleep Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, the University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hokynar K, Vesterinen EJ, Lilley TM, Pulliainen AT, Korhonen SJ, Paavonen J, Puolakkainen M. Molecular Evidence of Chlamydia-Like Organisms in the Feces of Myotis daubentonii Bats. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:e02951-16. [PMID: 27815278 PMCID: PMC5203614 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02951-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia-like organisms (CLOs) are recently identified members of the Chlamydiales order. CLOs share intracellular lifestyles and biphasic developmental cycles, and they have been detected in environmental samples as well as in various hosts such as amoebae and arthropods. In this study, we screened bat feces for the presence of CLOs by molecular analysis. Using pan-Chlamydiales PCR targeting the 16S rRNA gene, Chlamydiales DNA was detected in 54% of the specimens. PCR amplification, sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA genes were used to classify positive specimens and infer their phylogenetic relationships. Most sequences matched best with Rhabdochlamydia species or uncultured Chlamydia sequences identified in ticks. Another set of sequences matched best with sequences of the Chlamydia genus or uncultured Chlamydiales from snakes. To gain evidence of whether CLOs in bat feces are merely diet borne, we analyzed insects trapped from the same location where the bats foraged. Interestingly, the CLO sequences resembling Rhabdochlamydia spp. were detected in insect material as well, but the other set of CLO sequences was not, suggesting that this set might not originate from prey. Thus, bats represent another potential host for Chlamydiales and could harbor novel, previously unidentified members of this order. IMPORTANCE Several pathogenic viruses are known to colonize bats, and recent analyses indicate that bats are also reservoir hosts for bacterial genera. Chlamydia-like organisms (CLOs) have been detected in several animal species. CLOs have high 16S rRNA sequence similarity to Chlamydiaceae and exhibit similar intracellular lifestyles and biphasic developmental cycles. Our study describes the frequent occurrence of CLO DNA in bat feces, suggesting an expanding host species spectrum for the Chlamydiales As bats can acquire various infectious agents through their diet, prey insects were also studied. We identified CLO sequences in bats that matched best with sequences in prey insects but also CLO sequences not detected in prey insects. This suggests that a portion of CLO DNA present in bat feces is not prey borne. Furthermore, some sequences from bat droppings not originating from their diet might well represent novel, previously unidentified members of the Chlamydiales order.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K Hokynar
- Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - E J Vesterinen
- Archipelago Research Institute, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - T M Lilley
- Biology Department, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - A T Pulliainen
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - S J Korhonen
- Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - J Paavonen
- Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - M Puolakkainen
- Virology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Vouga M, Baud D, Greub G. Simkania negevensis, an insight into the biology and clinical importance of a novel member of the Chlamydiales order. Crit Rev Microbiol 2016; 43:62-80. [PMID: 27786615 DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2016.1165650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Simkania negevensis is a Chlamydia-related bacterium discovered in 1993 and represents the founding member of the Simkaniaceae family within the Chlamydiales order. As other Chlamydiales, it is an obligate intracellular bacterium characterized by a biphasic developmental cycle. Its similarities with the pathogenic Chlamydia trachomatis and Chlamydia pneumoniae make it an interesting bacterium. So far, little is known about its biology, but S. negevensis harbors various microbiological characteristics of interest, including a strong association of the Simkania-containing vacuole with the ER and the presence of an intron in the 23S rRNA encoding gene. Evidence of human exposition has been reported worldwide. However, there is a lack of robust clinical studies evaluating its implication in human diseases; current data suggest an association with pneumonia and bronchiolitis making S. negevensis a potential emerging pathogen. Owing to its fastidious growth requirements, the clinical relevance of S. negevensis is probably underestimated. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on S. negevensis and explore future research challenges.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Manon Vouga
- a Institute of Microbiology , Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University and University Hospital of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland.,b Department "Femme-Mère-Enfant" , Materno-Fetal and Obstetrics Research Unit, University Hospital , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - David Baud
- a Institute of Microbiology , Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University and University Hospital of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland.,b Department "Femme-Mère-Enfant" , Materno-Fetal and Obstetrics Research Unit, University Hospital , Lausanne , Switzerland
| | - Gilbert Greub
- a Institute of Microbiology , Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University and University Hospital of Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland.,c Infectious Diseases Unit , University hospital , Lausanne , Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Hokynar K, Sormunen JJ, Vesterinen EJ, Partio EK, Lilley T, Timonen V, Panelius J, Ranki A, Puolakkainen M. Chlamydia-Like Organisms (CLOs) in Finnish Ixodes ricinus Ticks and Human Skin. Microorganisms 2016; 4:E28. [PMID: 27681922 PMCID: PMC5039588 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms4030028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 08/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks carry several human pathogenic microbes including Borreliae and Flavivirus causing tick-born encephalitis. Ticks can also carry DNA of Chlamydia-like organisms (CLOs). The purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrence of CLOs in ticks and skin biopsies taken from individuals with suspected tick bite. DNA from CLOs was detected by pan-Chlamydiales-PCR in 40% of adult ticks from southwestern Finland. The estimated minimal infection rate for nymphs and larvae (studied in pools) was 6% and 2%, respectively. For the first time, we show CLO DNA also in human skin as 68% of all skin biopsies studied contained CLO DNA as determined through pan-Chlamydiales-PCR. Sequence analyses based on the 16S rRNA gene fragment indicated that the sequences detected in ticks were heterogeneous, representing various CLO families; whereas the majority of the sequences from human skin remained "unclassified Chlamydiales" and might represent a new family-level lineage. CLO sequences detected in four skin biopsies were most closely related to "uncultured Chlamydial bacterium clones from Ixodes ricinus ticks" and two of them were very similar to CLO sequences from Finnish ticks. These results suggest that CLO DNA is present in human skin; ticks carry CLOs and could potentially transmit CLOs to humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kati Hokynar
- Department of Virology, Hartman institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland.
| | - Jani J Sormunen
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku 20014, Finland.
| | - Eero J Vesterinen
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku 20014, Finland.
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland.
| | - Esa K Partio
- Medical Center Söder, Söderkulla 01150, Finland.
| | - Thomas Lilley
- Biology Department, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837, USA.
| | - Veera Timonen
- Department of Virology, Hartman institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland.
| | - Jaana Panelius
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki 00250, Finland.
| | - Annamari Ranki
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki 00250, Finland.
| | - Mirja Puolakkainen
- Department of Virology, Hartman institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
de Barsy M, Bertelli C, Jacquier N, Kebbi-Beghdadi C, Greub G. ESCCAR international congress on Rickettsia and other intracellular bacteria. Microbes Infect 2015; 17:680-8. [PMID: 26297854 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2015.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The European Society for the study of Chlamydia, Coxiella, Anaplasma and Rickettsia (ESCCAR) held his triennial international meeting in Lausanne. This meeting gathered 165 scientists from 28 countries and all 5 continents, allowing efficient networking and major scientific exchanges. Topics covered include molecular and cellular microbiology, genomics, as well as epidemiology, veterinary and human medicine. Several breakthroughs have been revealed at the meeting, such as (i) the presence of CRISPR (the "prokaryotic immune system") in chlamydiae, (ii) an Anaplasma effector involved in host chromatin remodelling, (iii) the polarity of the type III secretion system of chlamydiae during the entry process revealed by cryo-electron tomography. Moreover, the ESCCAR meeting was a unique opportunity to be exposed to cutting-edge science and to listen to comprehensive talks on current hot topics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie de Barsy
- Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Claire Bertelli
- Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Jacquier
- Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Carole Kebbi-Beghdadi
- Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gilbert Greub
- Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
In contrast to Chlamydia trachomatis, Waddlia chondrophila grows in human cells without inhibiting apoptosis, fragmenting the Golgi apparatus, or diverting post-Golgi sphingomyelin transport. Infect Immun 2015; 83:3268-80. [PMID: 26056386 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00322-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The Chlamydiales are an order of obligate intracellular bacteria sharing a developmental cycle inside a cytosolic vacuole, with very diverse natural hosts, from amoebae to mammals. The clinically most important species is Chlamydia trachomatis. Many uncertainties remain as to how Chlamydia organizes its intracellular development and replication. The discovery of new Chlamydiales species from other families permits the comparative analysis of cell-biological events and may indicate events that are common to all or peculiar to some species and more or less tightly linked to "chlamydial" development. We used this approach in the infection of human cells with Waddlia chondrophila, a species from the family Waddliaceae whose natural host is uncertain. Compared to C. trachomatis, W. chondrophila had slightly different growth characteristics, including faster cytotoxicity. The embedding in cytoskeletal structures was not as pronounced as for the C. trachomatis inclusion. C. trachomatis infection generates proteolytic activity by the protease Chlamydia protease-like activity factor (CPAF), which degrades host substrates upon extraction; these substrates were not cleaved in the case of W. chondrophila. Unlike Chlamydia, W. chondrophila did not protect against staurosporine-induced apoptosis. C. trachomatis infection causes Golgi apparatus fragmentation and redirects post-Golgi sphingomyelin transport to the inclusion; both were absent from W. chondrophila-infected cells. When host cells were infected with both species, growth of both species was reduced. This study highlights differences between bacterial species that both depend on obligate intracellular replication inside an inclusion. Some features seem principally dispensable for intracellular development of Chlamydiales in vitro but may be linked to host adaptation of Chlamydia and the higher virulence of C. trachomatis.
Collapse
|
15
|
Al-Younes HM, Paldanius M. High seroprevalence of Simkania negevensis in Jordan. Braz J Microbiol 2015; 45:1433-7. [PMID: 25763051 PMCID: PMC4323320 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-83822014000400038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterium Simkania negevensis is a germ associated with respiratory diseases. This study aims at estimating the prevalence of Simkania in the Jordanian population. Serum samples from 664 Jordanian males and females, aged 2 to 86 years were collected. IgG and IgM Simkania-specific antibodies were detected using an indirect immunofluorescence test. Seropositivity titers for IgG and IgM were defined as 1:8 and 1:10, respectively. The overall prevalence of IgG antibody in all examined Jordanian nationals was 58.4%. IgG seropositivity was low in children under the age of 10 years (34.2%), and increased rapidly with age and ranged between 49.4% and 72%. Simkania-specific IgM was detected in 24.8% of subjects. IgM prevalence in children under 10 years was lowest (10.5%) and increased in older ages and remained above 20%. Overall detection rates of both IgG and IgM were significantly higher in females than males (60.7% vs. 54.5% for IgG and 26.7% vs. 21.7% for IgM). These data indicate that Simkania infection is highly prevalent in Jordan. The high level of seropositivity is most likely maintained by re-infections or chronic infections. Our data may serve as a basis to elucidate the pathogenesis of Simkania in Jordan.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hesham M Al-Younes
- Department of Biological Sciences Faculty of Science University of Jordan Amman Jordan Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
| | - Mika Paldanius
- Northern Finland Laboratory Centre NordlabOulu Finland Northern Finland Laboratory Centre, Nordlab, Oulu, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Corsaro D, Venditti D. Detection of novel Chlamydiae and Legionellales from human nasal samples of healthy volunteers. Folia Microbiol (Praha) 2015; 60:325-34. [PMID: 25697709 DOI: 10.1007/s12223-015-0378-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydiae are intracellular bacterial parasites of eukaryotes, ranging from amoebae to humans. They comprise many novel members and are investigated as emerging pathogens. Environmental studies highlighted similarities between the ecologies of chlamydiae and legionellae, both groups being important agents of respiratory infections. Herein, we analyzed nasal samples from healthy persons, searching for the presence of amoebae, chlamydiae and legionellae. From a total of 25 samples, we recovered by PCR eight samples positive to chlamydiae and six samples positive to legionellae. Among these samples, four were positive to both organisms. The sequencing of 16S rDNAs allowed to identify (i) among Chlamydiae: Parachlamydia acanthamoebae, Chlamydophila psittaci, Chlamydophila felis, and members of Rhabdochlamydiaceae, Simkaniaceae and E6 lineage and (ii) among Legionellaceae: Legionella longbeachae, Legionella bozemanii and Legionella impletisoli. Unexpectedly, we also recovered Diplorickettsia sp. Amoebae collected from nasal mucosae, Acanthamoeba and Vermamoeba, were endosymbiont-free, and chlamydiae revealed refractory to amoeba coculture. This study shows common exposure to chlamydiae and legionellae and suggests open air activities like gardening as a probable additional source of infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Corsaro
- CHLAREAS Chlamydia Research Association, 12 rue du Maconnais, 54500, Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France,
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Wheelhouse N, Longbottom D. Chlamydia-related Organisms: Infection in Ruminants and Potential for Zoonotic transmission. CURRENT CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s40588-014-0011-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
18
|
Kostanjšek R, Pirc Marolt T. Pathogenesis, tissue distribution and host response to Rhabdochlamydia porcellionis infection in rough woodlouse Porcellio scaber. J Invertebr Pathol 2015; 125:56-67. [PMID: 25593037 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2014] [Revised: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 01/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Rhabdochlamydia porcellionis is a known intracellular pathogen in digestive glands of the terrestrial isopod crustacean Porcellio scaber. To describe the pathogenesis, tissue distribution and host response to R. porcellionis, we conducted microscopic observations and localization of infection in tissues by Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH). Digestive glands were confirmed as the primary site of infection. From there, R. porcellionis disseminates either through the apical membrane of infected cells into the lumen of digestive glands and further throughout the digestive tract or into the surrounding hemocoel by rupture of the basal membrane and lamina of infected digestive gland cells. Once in the hemocoel, R. porcellionis infects hindgut cells, hemocytes and hemopoetic tissues while the ventral nerve cord and gonads seem to be devoid of infection despite the presence of rhabdochlamydia on the surface of these organs. The host response to R. porcellionis includes aggregation of hemocytes around the infected cells and formation of multilayered melanized nodules exhibiting endogenous fluorescence. The structure of nodules is asymmetric when hemocytes are deposited on the basal side of infected gut and digestive glands cells, or symmetric, when nodules entrapping clusters of rhabdochlamydiae are deposited on other organs in the hemocoel. The study also revealed a high prevalence of infection in P. scaber populations (up to 27%) and confirmed its detrimental effect on the host. Although agility, behavior and molting cycle of infected animals appear unaffected, in the later stages R. porcellionis infection manifests as severe damage to the digestive system and decreased feeding, which eventually lead to the death of the host organism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rok Kostanjšek
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Tinkara Pirc Marolt
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Taylor-Brown A, Vaughan L, Greub G, Timms P, Polkinghorne A. Twenty years of research into Chlamydia-like organisms: a revolution in our understanding of the biology and pathogenicity of members of the phylum Chlamydiae. Pathog Dis 2014; 73:1-15. [PMID: 25854000 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftu009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular bacteria that share a unique but remarkably conserved biphasic developmental cycle that relies on a eukaryotic host cell for survival. Although the phylum was originally thought to only contain one family, the Chlamydiaceae, a total of nine families are now recognized. These so-called Chlamydia-like organisms (CLOs) are also referred to as 'environmental chlamydiae', as many were initially isolated from environmental sources. However, these organisms are also emerging pathogens, as many, such as Parachlamydia sp., Simkania sp. and Waddlia sp., have been associated with human disease, and others, such as Piscichlamydia sp. and Parilichlamydia sp., have been documented in association with diseases in animals. Their strict intracellular nature and the requirement for cell culture have been a confounding factor in characterizing the biology and pathogenicity of CLOs. Nevertheless, the genomes of seven CLO species have now been sequenced, providing new information on their potential ability to adapt to a wide range of hosts. As new isolation and diagnostic methods advance, we are able to further explore the richness of this phylum with further research likely to help define the true pathogenic potential of the CLOs while also providing insight into the origins of the 'traditional' chlamydiae.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alyce Taylor-Brown
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland 4556, Australia
| | - Lloyd Vaughan
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, University of Zurich, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gilbert Greub
- Institute of Microbiology, University of Lausanne, CH-1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Peter Timms
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland 4556, Australia
| | - Adam Polkinghorne
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland 4556, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Kebbi-Beghdadi C, Greub G. Importance of amoebae as a tool to isolate amoeba-resisting microorganisms and for their ecology and evolution: the Chlamydia paradigm. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2014; 6:309-24. [PMID: 24992529 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.12155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2013] [Revised: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Free-living amoebae are distributed worldwide and are frequently in contact with humans and animals. As cysts, they can survive in very harsh conditions and resist biocides and most disinfection procedures. Several microorganisms, called amoeba-resisting microorganisms (ARMs), have evolved to survive and multiply within these protozoa. Among them are many important pathogens, such as Legionella and Mycobacteria, and also several newly discovered Chlamydia-related bacteria, such as Parachlamydia acanthamoebae, Estrella lausannensis, Simkania negevensis or Waddlia chondrophila whose pathogenic role towards human or animal is strongly suspected. Amoebae represent an evolutionary crib for their resistant microorganisms since they can exchange genetic material with other ARMs and develop virulence traits that will be further used to infect other professional phagocytes. Moreover, amoebae constitute an ideal tool to isolate strict intracellular microorganisms from complex microbiota, since they will feed on other fast-growing bacteria, such as coliforms potentially present in the investigated samples. The paradigm that ARMs are likely resistant to macrophages, another phagocytic cell, and that they are likely virulent towards humans and animals is only partially true. Indeed, we provide examples of the Chlamydiales order that challenge this assumption and suggest that the ability to multiply in protozoa does not strictly correlate with pathogenicity and that we should rather use the ability to replicate in multiple and diverse eukaryotic cells as an indirect marker of virulence towards mammals. Thus, cell-culture-based microbial culturomics should be used in the future to try to discover new pathogenic bacterial species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carole Kebbi-Beghdadi
- Center for Research on Intracellular Bacteria (CRIB), Institute of Microbiology, University Hospital Center, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Hanski L, Vuorela PM. Recent advances in technologies for developing drugs againstChlamydia pneumoniae. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2014; 9:791-802. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2014.915309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
22
|
First detection of Waddlia chondrophila in Africa using SYBR Green real-time PCR on veterinary samples. Vet Microbiol 2013; 164:101-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2012] [Revised: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
23
|
Wheelhouse N, Longbottom D. Endemic and emerging chlamydial infections of animals and their zoonotic implications. Transbound Emerg Dis 2011; 59:283-91. [PMID: 22099945 DOI: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2011.01274.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The Chlamydiae are a diverse group of obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacteria that are known to infect a wide variety of host species and are responsible for a wide range of diseases in animals and man. Many of these organisms have been extensively characterized and their zoonotic implications recognized. Studies of human disease first provided evidence for the disease-causing potential of Chlamydia-related bacteria; however, there is now increasing evidence that a number of these organisms may also be the causative agents for a number of pathogenic conditions of livestock that had previously remained undiagnosed. The aim of this review is to draw together the evidence for the role of the newly emerging chlamydial infections in livestock disease, the current understanding of their roles in human disease and highlight the potential for zoonotic transmission.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Wheelhouse
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Edinburgh, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|