Mannheimia haemolytica leukotoxin binds cyclophilin D on bovine neutrophil mitochondria

Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans LtxA Hijacks Endocytic Trafficking Pathways in Human Lymphocytes

Leukotoxin (LtxA), from oral pathogen Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, is a secreted membrane-damaging protein. LtxA is internalized by β2 integrin LFA-1 (CD11a/CD18)-expressing leukocytes and ultimately causes cell death; however, toxin localization in the host cell is poorly understood and these studies fill this void. We investigated LtxA trafficking using multi-fluor confocal imaging, flow cytometry and Rab5a knockdown in human T lymphocyte Jurkat cells. Planar lipid bilayers were used to characterize LtxA pore-forming activity at different pHs. Our results demonstrate that the LtxA/LFA-1 complex gains access to the cytosol of Jurkat cells without evidence of plasma membrane damage, utilizing dynamin-dependent and presumably clathrin-independent mechanisms. Upon internalization, LtxA follows the LFA-1 endocytic trafficking pathways, as identified by co-localization experiments with endosomal and lysosomal markers (Rab5, Rab11A, Rab7, and Lamp1) and CD11a. Knockdown of Rab5a resulted in the loss of susceptibility of Jurkat cells to LtxA cytotoxicity, suggesting that late events of LtxA endocytic trafficking are required for toxicity. Toxin trafficking via the degradative endocytic pathway may culminate in the delivery of the protein to lysosomes or its accumulation in Rab11A-dependent recycling endosomes. The ability of LtxA to form pores at acidic pH may result in permeabilization of the endosomal and lysosomal membranes.

NMR structure of the Bacillus cereus hemolysin II C-terminal domain reveals a novel fold

In addition to multiple virulence factors, Bacillus cereus a pathogen that causes food poisoning and life-threatening wound infections, secretes the pore-forming toxin hemolysin II (HlyII). The HlyII toxin has a unique 94 amino acid C-terminal domain (HlyIIC). HlyIIC exhibits splitting of NMR resonances due to cis/trans isomerization of a single proline near the C-terminus. To overcome heterogeneity, we solved the structure of P405M-HlyIIC, a mutant that exclusively stabilizes the trans state. The NMR structure of HlyIIC reveals a novel fold, consisting of two subdomains αA-β1-β2 and β3-β4-αB-β5, that come together in a barrel-like structure. The barrel core is fastened by three layers of hydrophobic residues. The barrel end opposite the HlyIIC-core has a positively charged surface, that by binding negatively charged moieties on cellular membranes, may play a role in target-cell surface recognition or stabilization of the heptameric pore complex. In the WT domain, dynamic flexibility occurs at the N-terminus and the first α-helix that connects the HlyIIC domain to the HlyII-core structure. In the destabilizing P405M mutant, increased flexibility is evident throughout the first subdomain, suggesting that the HlyIIC structure may have arisen through gene fusion.

Evaluation of NAD(P)-Dependent Dehydrogenase Activities in Neutrophilic Granulocytes by the Bioluminescent Method

Bioluminescent method for measurements of the neutrophilic NAD(P)-dependent dehydrogenases (lactate dehydrogenase, NAD-dependent malate dehydrogenase, NADP-dependent decarboxylating malate dehydrogenase, NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase, and glucose- 6-phosphate dehydrogenase) is developed. The sensitivity of the method allows minimization of the volume of biological material for measurements to 104 neutrophils per analysis. The method is tried in patients with diffuse purulent peritonitis. Low levels of NADPH synthesis enzymes and high levels of enzymes determining the substrate flow by the Krebs cycle found in these patients can lead to attenuation of functional activity of cells.

Renal participation of myeloperoxidase in antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated glomerulonephritis

Myeloperoxidase (MPO) is an important neutrophil lysosomal enzyme, a major autoantigen, and a potential mediator of tissue injury in MPO-ANCA-associated vasculitis (MPO-AAV) and glomerulonephritis. Here we examined MPO deposition in kidney biopsies from 47 patients with MPO-AAV. Leukocyte accumulation and fibrin deposition consistent with cell-mediated immunity was a major feature. Tubulointerstitial macrophage, CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell, and neutrophil numbers correlated with low presenting eGFR. MPO was not detected in kidneys from patients with minimal change or thin basement membrane disease, but was prominent in glomerular, periglomerular, and tubulointerstitial regions in MPO-AAV. Extracellular MPO released from leukocytes was pronounced in all MPO-AAV patients. Similar numbers of neutrophils and macrophages expressed MPO in the kidneys, but colocalization studies identified neutrophils as the major source of extracellular MPO. Extraleukocyte MPO was prominent in neutrophil extracellular traps in the majority of patients; most of which had traps in half or more glomeruli. These traps were associated with more neutrophils and more MPO within glomeruli. Glomerular MPO-containing macrophages generated extracellular trap-like structures. MPO also localized to endothelial cells and podocytes. The presence of the most active glomerular lesions (both segmental necrosis and cellular crescents) correlated with intraglomerular CD4+ cells and MPO+ macrophages. Thus, cellular and extracellular MPO may cause glomerular and interstitial injury.

Microbial peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIases): virulence factors and potential alternative drug targets

Initially discovered in the context of immunomodulation, peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIases) were soon identified as enzymes catalyzing the rate-limiting protein folding step at peptidyl bonds preceding proline residues. Intense searches revealed that PPIases are a superfamily of proteins consisting of three structurally distinguishable families with representatives in every described species of prokaryote and eukaryote and, recently, even in some giant viruses. Despite the clear-cut enzymatic activity and ubiquitous distribution of PPIases, reports on solely PPIase-dependent biological roles remain scarce. Nevertheless, they have been found to be involved in a plethora of biological processes, such as gene expression, signal transduction, protein secretion, development, and tissue regeneration, underscoring their general importance. Hence, it is not surprising that PPIases have also been identified as virulence-associated proteins. The extent of contribution to virulence is highly variable and dependent on the pleiotropic roles of a single PPIase in the respective pathogen. The main objective of this review is to discuss this variety in virulence-related bacterial and protozoan PPIases as well as the involvement of host PPIases in infectious processes. Moreover, a special focus is given to Legionella pneumophila macrophage infectivity potentiator (Mip) and Mip-like PPIases of other pathogens, as the best-characterized virulence-related representatives of this family. Finally, the potential of PPIases as alternative drug targets and first tangible results are highlighted.

The expanding world of extracellular traps: not only neutrophils but much more

The release of extracellular traps (ETs) is a recently described mechanism of innate immune response to infection. Although ETs have been intensely investigated in the context of neutrophil antimicrobial effector mechanisms, other immune cells such as mast cells, eosinophils, and macrophages can also release these structures. The different ETs have several features in common, regardless of the type of cells from which they originated, including a DNA backbone with embedded antimicrobial peptides, proteases, and histones. However, they also exhibit remarkable individual differences such as the type of sub-cellular compartments from where the DNA backbone originates (e.g., nucleus or mitochondria), the proportion of responding cells within the pool, and/or the molecular mechanism/s underlying the ETs formation. This review summarizes the knowledge accumulated in recent years regarding the complex and expanding world of ETs and their role in immune function with particular emphasis on the role of other immune cells rather than on neutrophils exclusively.

Mannheimia haemolytica and its leukotoxin cause macrophage extracellular trap formation by bovine macrophages

Human and bovine neutrophils release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which are protein-studded DNA matrices capable of extracellular trapping and killing of pathogens. Recently, we reported that bovine neutrophils release NETs in response to the important respiratory pathogen Mannheimia haemolytica and its leukotoxin (LKT). Here, we demonstrate macrophage extracellular trap (MET) formation by bovine monocyte-derived macrophages exposed to M. haemolytica or its LKT. Both native fully active LKT and noncytolytic pro-LKT (produced by an lktC mutant of M. haemolytica) stimulated MET formation. Confocal and scanning electron microscopy revealed a network of DNA fibrils with colocalized histones in extracellular traps released from bovine macrophages. Formation of METs required NADPH oxidase activity, as previously demonstrated for NET formation. METs formed in response to LKT trapped and killed a portion of the M. haemolytica cells. Bovine alveolar macrophages, but not peripheral blood monocytes, also formed METs in response to M. haemolytica cells. MET formation was not restricted to bovine macrophages. We also observed MET formation by the mouse macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 and by human THP-1 cell-derived macrophages, in response to Escherichia coli hemolysin. The latter is a member of the repeats-in-toxin (RTX) toxin family related to the M. haemolytica leukotoxin. This study demonstrates that macrophages, like neutrophils, can form extracellular traps in response to bacterial pathogens and their exotoxins.