An assessment of the efficiency of fungal DNA extraction methods for maximizing the detection of medically important fungi using PCR

Sporothrix brasiliensis-specific polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of cat and human sporotrichosis through non-invasive samples

Zoonotic sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix brasiliensis is an emerging mycosis in Latin America. One of the problems to quickly treat infected animals and break the transmission chain is associated with the time-consuming gold-standard diagnosis method (culture). We aimed to evaluate a species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the diagnosis of sporotrichosis caused by S. brasiliensis using non-invasive samples. We performed a retrospective cross-sectional study using samples collected with swabs from humans and cats with clinical suspicion of sporotrichosis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted using a commercial kit, and a species-specific PCR for S. brasiliensis detection was performed. One hundred ten samples were included. PCR showed a good concordance with culture (86% of agreement) for human and cat samples (Kappa coefficient = 0.722, and 0.727, respectively). In conclusion, our data shows that this adapted PCR using non-invasive samples can be applied to sporotrichosis diagnosis, being a good alternative mainly in regions with a lack of mycologists to identify the fungus in culture, contributing to the control of this emergent zoonosis.

Molecular Diagnostics for Invasive Fungal Diseases: Current and Future Approaches

Invasive fungal diseases (IFDs) comprise a growing healthcare burden, especially given the expanding population of immunocompromised hosts. Early diagnosis of IFDs is required to optimise therapy with antifungals, especially in the setting of rising rates of antifungal resistance. Molecular techniques including nucleic acid amplification tests and whole genome sequencing have potential to offer utility in overcoming limitations with traditional phenotypic testing. However, standardisation of methodology and interpretations of these assays is an ongoing undertaking. The utility of targeted Aspergillus detection has been well-defined, with progress in investigations into the role of targeted assays for Candida, Pneumocystis, Cryptococcus, the Mucorales and endemic mycoses. Likewise, whilst broad-range polymerase chain reaction assays have been in use for some time, pathology stewardship and optimising diagnostic yield is a continuing exercise. As costs decrease, there is also now increased access and experience with whole genome sequencing, including metagenomic sequencing, which offers unparalleled resolution especially in the investigations of potential outbreaks. However, their role in routine diagnostic use remains uncommon and standardisation of techniques and workflow are required for wider implementation.

The diagnosis of central nervous system infections in resource-limited settings and the use of novel and molecular diagnostic platforms to improve diagnosis

INTRODUCTION

Central nervous system infections (CNSI) disproportionately affect individuals in low-resource settings where diagnosis is challenging; large proportions of patients never receive a confirmed microbiological diagnosis resulting in inadequate management and high mortality. The epidemiology of CNSI varies globally and conventional diagnostics deployed in resource-limited settings have significant limitations, with an urgent need for improved diagnostic strategies.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes molecular platforms and other novel diagnostics used in the diagnosis of CNSI that are applicable to resource-limited settings. An extensive literature search of Medline and PubMed was performed. The emphasis is on investigations targeting infections of relevance to resource-limited settings either due to variation in regional CNSI epidemiology or due to increased prevalence in patients with immunosuppression. This includes commercially available multiplex PCR platforms, mycobacterial PCR platforms, and rapid diagnostics tests. To offer a framework for the optimal implementation in clinical settings, existing evidence highlighting the advantages and limitations of available platforms is reviewed.

EXPERT OPINION

The implementation of molecular platforms and other novel diagnostics has the potential to transform CNSI diagnosis in resource-limited settings, with several examples of successful rollout of novel diagnostics such as Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra and cryptococcal antigen testing.

Rapid and robust squashed spore/colony PCR of industrially important fungi

BACKGROUND

Fungi have been utilized for centuries in medical, agricultural, and industrial applications. Development of systems biology techniques has enabled the design and metabolic engineering of these fungi to produce novel fuels, chemicals, and enzymes from renewable feedstocks. Many genetic tools have been developed for manipulating the genome and creating mutants rapidly. However, screening and confirmation of transformants remain an inefficient step within the design, build, test, and learn cycle in many industrial fungi because extracting fungal genomic DNA is laborious, time-consuming, and involves toxic chemicals.

RESULTS

In this study we developed a rapid and robust technique called "Squash-PCR" to break open the spores and release fungal genomic DNA as a template for PCR. The efficacy of Squash-PCR was investigated in eleven different filamentous fungal strains. Clean PCR products with high yields were achieved in all tested fungi. Spore age and type of DNA polymerase did not affect the efficiency of Squash-PCR. However, spore concentration was found to be the crucial factor for Squash-PCR in Aspergillus niger, with the dilution of starting material often resulting in higher PCR product yield. We then further evaluated the applicability of the squashing procedure for nine different yeast strains. We found that Squash-PCR can be used to improve the quality and yield of colony PCR in comparison to direct colony PCR in the tested yeast strains.

CONCLUSION

The developed technique will enhance the efficiency of screening transformants and accelerate genetic engineering in filamentous fungi and yeast.

Optimized Sample Processing Pipeline for PCR-Based Fungicide Resistance Quantification of Stubble-Borne Fungal Pathogens

Globally, yield losses associated with failed crop protection due to fungicide-resistant pathogens present an increasing problem. For stubble-borne pathogens, assessment of crop residues during the off-season could provide early fungicide resistance quantification for informed management decisions to mitigate yield losses. However, stubble assessment is hampered by assay inhibitors that are derived from decaying organic matter. To overcome assay inhibition from weathered stubble samples, we used a systems approach to quantify the frequency of resistance to demethylase inhibitor fungicides of the barley pathogen Pyrenophora teres f. teres. The system canvassed (i) 10 ball-milling conditions; (ii) four DNA extraction methodologies; and (iii) three column purification techniques for the provision of sufficient yield, quality, and purity of fungal DNA for a PCR-based fungicide resistance assay. Results show that DNA quantity and purity differed within each of the above three categories, with the optimized pipeline being (i) ball-milling samples in a 50-ml stainless steel canister for 5 min using a 20-mm ball at 30 revolutions s^-1; (ii) a modified Brandfass method (extracted 64% more DNA than other methods assessed); and (iii) use of silica resin columns for the highest DNA concentration with optimal DNA purity. The chip-digital PCR assay, which quantified fungicide resistance from field samples, was unaffected by the DNA extraction method or purification technique, provided that thresholds of template quantity and purity were satisfied. In summary, this study has developed molecular pipeline options for pathogen fungicide resistance quantification from cereal stubbles, which can guide management for improved crop protection outcomes.

Hyperparasitic Fungi on Black Mildews (Meliolales, Ascomycota): Hidden Fungal Diversity in the Tropics

Hyperparasitism on plant-parasitic fungi is a widespread but rarely studied phenomenon. Here, for the first time, we compile in a checklist information provided by peer-reviewed literature for fungi growing on colonies of black mildews (Meliolales, Ascomycota), a species-rich group of tropical and subtropical plant-parasitic microfungi. The checklist contains information on 189 species of contact-biotrophic microfungi in 82 genera. They belong to seven morphological groups: dematiaceous hyphomycetes, moniliaceous hyphomycetes, pycnidioid, perithecioid, catathecioid, and apothecioid fungi. By the fact that species accumulation curves do not reach saturation for any tropical country, it is evident that the knowledge of the diversity of hyperparasitic fungi on Meliolales is incomplete. A network analysis of records of hyperparasitic fungi, their host fungi and host plants shows that genera of hyperparasitic fungi are generalists concerning genera of Meliolales. However, most species of hyperparasitic fungi are restricted to meliolalean hosts. In addition to hyperparasitic fungi, diverse further microorganisms use meliolalean colonies as ecological niche. Systematic positions of most species are unknown because DNA sequence data are lacking for species of fungi hyperparasitic on Meliolales. We discuss the specific challenges of obtaining DNA sequence data from hyperparasitic fungi. In order to better understand the diversity, evolution and biology of hyperparasitic fungi, it is necessary to increase sampling efforts and to undertake further morphological, molecular, and ecological studies.

A rapid multiplex nucleic acid detection system of airborne fungi by an integrated DNA release device and microfluidic chip

Occupational health problems, such as asthma, in specific work environments arise from the presence of airborne fungi. Rapid detection of pathogenic airborne fungi is therefore important to reduce or avoid any adverse effects on staff health. Herein, we established a new integrated rapid Lyticase-Motor-Chemical reagent nucleic acid releasing (LMC) method for the release of fungal DNA. Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, and Cryptococcus neoformans were chosen to evaluate the LMC method. The results of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) analyses showed that this method could release the nucleic acid of 4 × 10⁴ fungal spores, equaling to 400 copies per microliter. This rapid multiplex nucleic acid detection system of airborne fungi included an integrated DNA release device and a portable microfluidic chip. The integrated DNA release device combined mechanical lysing and biochemical reagent treatment to automate DNA release. The microfluidic chip was capable of multiplex nucleic acid detection. The detection limit of this system was 4 × 10⁴ spores per test, meeting the requirement of early warnings. The whole analysis from the sample input to readout could be completed within 90 min, including 30 min for fungal DNA release and 45 min for LAMP analysis. The integrated DNA release device and microfluidic chip were portable, showing tremendous potential in point-of-care tests of airborne fungi.

Development of a Simple DNA Extraction Method and Candida Pan Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Assay for Diagnosis of Candidemia

To reduce the morbidity and mortality of candidemia patients through rapid treatment, the development of a simple, rapid molecular diagnostic method that is based on nucleic acid extraction and is superior to conventional methods for detecting Candida in the blood is necessary. We developed a multiplex Candida Pan/internal control (IC) loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay and a simple DNA extraction boiling protocol using Chelex-100 that could extract yeast DNA in blood within 20 min. The Chelex-100/boiling method for DNA extraction showed comparable efficiency to that of the commercial QIAamp UCP Pathogen Mini Kit using Candida albicans qPCR. In addition, the Candida Pan/IC LAMP assay showed superior sensitivity to that of general Candida Pan and species qPCRs against clinical DNA samples extracted with the QIAamp UCP Pathogen Mini Kit and Chelex-100/boiling method. The Candida Pan/IC LAMP assay followed by Chelex-100/boiling-mediated DNA extraction showed high sensitivity (100%) and specificity (100%) against clinical samples infected with Candida. These results suggest that the Candida Pan/IC LAMP assay could be used as a rapid molecular diagnostic test for candidemia.

Susceptibility Pattern of Caspofungin-Coated Gold Nanoparticles Against Clinically Important Candida Species

Purpose: The present study was performed to examine whether caspofungin-coated gold nanoparticles (CAS-AuNPs) may offer the right platform for sensitivity induction in resistant isolates.

Methods: A total of 58 archived Candida species were enrolled in the research. The identification of Candida spp. was performed using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism and HWP1 gene amplification approaches. The conjugated CAS-AuNPs were synthesized and then characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Zetasizer system to determine their morphology, size, and charge. Furthermore, the efficacy was assessed based on the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute M60. Finally, the interaction of CAS-AuNPs with Candida element was evaluated via scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

Results: According to the TEM results, the synthesized CAS-AuNPs had a spherical shape with an average size of 20 nm. The Zeta potential of CAS-AuNPs was -38.2 mV. Statistical analyses showed that CAS-AuNPs could significantly reduce the minimum inhibitory concentration against C. albicans (P =0.0005) and non-albicans Candida (NAC) species (P < 0.0001). All isolates had a MIC value of ≥ 4 µg/ml for CAS, except for C. glabrata. The results of SEM analysis confirmed the effects of AuNPs on the cell wall structure of C. globrata with the formation of pores.

Conclusion: According to findings, CAS-AuNPs conjugates had significant antifungal effects against Candida spp. Therefore, it can be concluded that the encapsulation of antifungal drugs in combination with NPs not only diminishes side effects but also enhances the effectiveness of the medications.

Extracellular DNA: Insight of a Signal Molecule in Crop Protection

Simple Summary

Agriculture systems use multiple chemical treatments to prevent pests and diseases, and to fertilize plants and eliminate weeds around the crop. These practices are less accepted by the consumers each day, mostly because of the associated environmental, health, and ecological impact; thus, new sustainable green technologies are being developed to replace the use of chemical products. Among green technologies for agriculture practices, the use of plant elicitors represents an alternative with great potential, and extracellular DNA has shown beneficial effects on important production traits such as defence mechanisms, plant growth and development, and secondary metabolites production that results in yield increment and better-quality food. In this review, we reunite experimental evidence of the natural effect that extracellular DNA has on plants. We also aim to contribute a step closer to the agricultural application of extracellular DNA. Additionally, we suggest that extracellular DNA can have a biostimulant effect on plants, and can be applied as a highly sustainable treatment contributing to the circular economy of primary production.

Abstract

Agricultural systems face several challenges in terms of meeting everyday-growing quantities and qualities of food requirements. However, the ecological and social trade-offs for increasing agricultural production are high, therefore, more sustainable agricultural practices are desired. Researchers are currently working on diverse sustainable techniques based mostly on natural mechanisms that plants have developed along with their evolution. Here, we discuss the potential agricultural application of extracellular DNA (eDNA), its multiple functioning mechanisms in plant metabolism, the importance of hormetic curves establishment, and as a challenge: the technical limitations of the industrial scale for this technology. We highlight the more viable natural mechanisms in which eDNA affects plant metabolism, acting as a damage/microbe-associated molecular pattern (DAMP, MAMP) or as a general plant biostimulant. Finally, we suggest a whole sustainable system, where DNA is extracted from organic sources by a simple methodology to fulfill the molecular characteristics needed to be applied in crop production systems, allowing the reduction in, or perhaps the total removal of, chemical pesticides, fertilizers, and insecticides application.

Performance and Application of 16S rRNA Gene Cycle Sequencing for Routine Identification of Bacteria in the Clinical Microbiology Laboratory

This review provides a state-of-the-art description of the performance of Sanger cycle sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene for routine identification of bacteria in the clinical microbiology laboratory. A detailed description of the technology and current methodology is outlined with a major focus on proper data analyses and interpretation of sequences. The remainder of the article is focused on a comprehensive evaluation of the application of this method for identification of bacterial pathogens based on analyses of 16S multialignment sequences. In particular, the existing limitations of similarity within 16S for genus- and species-level differentiation of clinically relevant pathogens and the lack of sequence data currently available in public databases is highlighted. A multiyear experience is described of a large regional clinical microbiology service with direct 16S broad-range PCR followed by cycle sequencing for direct detection of pathogens in appropriate clinical samples. The ability of proteomics (matrix-assisted desorption ionization-time of flight) versus 16S sequencing for bacterial identification and genotyping is compared. Finally, the potential for whole-genome analysis by next-generation sequencing (NGS) to replace 16S sequencing for routine diagnostic use is presented for several applications, including the barriers that must be overcome to fully implement newer genomic methods in clinical microbiology. A future challenge for large clinical, reference, and research laboratories, as well as for industry, will be the translation of vast amounts of accrued NGS microbial data into convenient algorithm testing schemes for various applications (i.e., microbial identification, genotyping, and metagenomics and microbiome analyses) so that clinically relevant information can be reported to physicians in a format that is understood and actionable. These challenges will not be faced by clinical microbiologists alone but by every scientist involved in a domain where natural diversity of genes and gene sequences plays a critical role in disease, health, pathogenicity, epidemiology, and other aspects of life-forms. Overcoming these challenges will require global multidisciplinary efforts across fields that do not normally interact with the clinical arena to make vast amounts of sequencing data clinically interpretable and actionable at the bedside.

Introduction of a bead beating step improves fungal DNA extraction from selected patient specimens

In immunocompromised patients a colonisation with fungi carries the risk to develop serious invasive fungal infection. An early detection is therefore important, but not optimal hitherto. Fortunately, molecular genetic methods have increased the sensitivity of fungal detection and limited the time, until results are available. However, their success depends on an efficient extraction of genomic DNA from the fungal cell in the given diagnostic specimen. To improve the routine DNA preparation method for yeasts and moulds, the impact of bead beating on fungal DNA release was evaluated. PBS, blood and respiratory rinse were spiked with Candida glabrata or Aspergillus fumigatus. DNA was extracted by mechanical bead beating in addition to the different steps of the DNA preparation protocol, which comprised liquid nitrogen treatment, proteinase K digestion and DNA isolation using the EZ1 DNA Tissue Kit and Workstation. In every method variant tested, treatment with liquid nitrogen did not improve the DNA release. Bead beating once followed by proteinase K digestion and EZ1-work-up led to the highest DNA release from fungus, spiked in PBS, and increased the extracted DNA amount of C. glabrata about 100-fold and of A. fumigatus about 10-fold in relation to sole EZ1-work-up. In fungus-spiked respiratory rinse and blood, highest increase in DNA release was measured after triple bead beating with simultaneous proteinase K digestion. Fungal DNA release of C. glabrata increased for >100-fold in respiratory rinse and for >1000-fold in blood and of A. fumigatus for >10-fold in respiratory rinse and about 5- to 10-fold in blood. The data of this study clearly demonstrate that preparation of fungal DNA from human specimens is optimized by introduction of a bead beating step to the conventional DNA-preparation method without the necessity of a liquid nitrogen step.

Optimizing a real-time PCR assay for rapid detection of Candida auris in nasal and axillary/groin samples

Introduction. Candida auris is an emerging fungal pathogen. The organism can cause invasive infections associated with high mortality, has been implicated in outbreaks in healthcare settings and is frequently resistant to multiple antifungal agents, making it a significant challenge to infection prevention and patient treatment.Aim. To implement a real-time PCR assay for detection of C. auris in patient surveillance samples collected with the Copan Liquid Amies elution swab (ESwab) collection and transport system.Methodology. We optimized a real-time PCR testing procedure based on the sample collection device used in our institution.Results . ESwab transport medium was strongly inhibitory to the real-time PCR. Removing the medium with centrifugation, followed by suspending the pellet in PBS-BSA buffer (concentration 1 %), sufficiently eliminated the inhibition. The manual sample preparation method, freeze-thaw followed by mechanical disruption, allowed the detection of C. auris at the lowest cell concentration.Conclusion . The optimized procedure was used to test 1414 patient surveillance samples. The real-time PCR detected all culture-positive samples with 100 % sensitivity and 100 % specificity.

Combined bacterial and fungal targeted amplicon sequencing of respiratory samples: Does the DNA extraction method matter?

Background

High-throughput sequencing techniques are used to analyse the diversity of the respiratory microbiota in health and disease. Although extensive data are available regarding bacterial respiratory microbiota, its fungal component remains poorly studied. This is partly due to the technical issues associated with fungal metagenomics analyses. In this study, we compared two DNA extraction protocols and two fungal amplification targets for combined bacterial and fungal targeted amplicon sequencing analyses of the respiratory microbiota.

Methods

Six sputa, randomly selected from routine samples in Mondor Hospital (Creteil, France) and treated anonymously, were tested after bacterial and fungal routine culture. Two of which were spiked with Aspergillus Fumigati and Aspergillus Nigri (10⁵ conidia/mL). After mechanical lysis, DNA was extracted using automated QIAsymphony® extraction (AQE) or manual PowerSoil® MoBio extraction (MPE). DNA yield and purity were compared. DNA extracted from spiked sputa was subjected to (i) real-time PCR for Aspergillus DNA detection and (ii) combined metagenomic analyses targeting barcoded primers for fungal ITS1 and ITS2, and bacterial V1-V2 and V3-V4 16S regions. Amplicon libraries were prepared using MiSeq Reagent V3 kit on Illumina platform. Data were analysed using PyroMIC© and SHAMAN software, and compared with culture results.

Results

AQE extraction provided a higher yield of DNA (AQE/MPE DNA ratio = 4.5 [1.3–11]) in a shorter time. The yield of Aspergillus DNA detected by qPCR was similar for spiked sputa regardless of extraction protocol. The extraction moderately impacted the diversity or relative abundances of bacterial communities using targeted amplicon sequencing (2/43 taxa impacted). For fungi, the relative abundances of 4/11 major taxa were impacted and AQE results were closer to culture results. The V1-V2 or V3-V4 and ITS1 or ITS2 targets assessed similarly the diversity of bacterial and fungal major taxa, but ITS2 and V3-V4 detected more minor taxa.

Conclusion

Our results showed the importance of DNA extraction for combined bacterial and fungal targeted metagenomics of respiratory samples. The extraction protocol can affect DNA yield and the relative abundances of few bacterial but more fungal taxa. For fungal analysis, ITS2 allowed the detection of a greater number of minor taxa compared with ITS1.

Diagnostic Aspects of Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis: Present and New Directions

Purpose of Review

Diagnosis of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA) is important since many diseases have a similar appearance, but require different treatment. This review presents the well-established diagnostic criteria and new laboratory diagnostic approaches that have been evaluated for the diagnosis of this condition.

Recent Findings

Respiratory fungal culture is insensitive for CPA diagnosis. There are many new tests available, especially new platforms to detectAspergillusIgG. The most recent innovation is a lateral flow device, a point-of-care test that can be used in resource-constrained settings. Chest radiographs without cavitation or pleural thickening have a 100% negative predictive value for chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis in the African setting.

Summary

Early diagnosis of CPA is important to avoid inappropriate treatment. It is our contention that these new diagnostics will transform the diagnosis of CPA and reduce the number of undiagnosed cases or cases with a late diagnosis.

DNA extraction and amplicon production strategies deeply inf luence the outcome of gut mycobiome studies

Microbial ecology studies are often performed through extraction of metagenomic DNA followed by amplification and sequencing of a marker. It is known that each step may bias the results. These biases have been explored for the study of bacterial communities, but rarely for fungi. Our aim was therefore to evaluate methods for the study of the gut mycobiome. We first evaluated DNA extraction methods in fungal cultures relevant to the gut. Afterwards, to assess how these methods would behave with an actual sample, stool from a donor was spiked with cells from the same cultures. We found that different extraction kits favour some species and bias against others. In terms of amplicon sequencing, we evaluated five primer sets, two for ITS2 and one for ITS1, 18S and 28S rRNA. Results showed that 18S rRNA outperformed the other markers: it was able to amplify all the species in the mock community and to discriminate among them. ITS primers showed both amplification and sequencing biases, the latter related to the variable length of the product. We identified several biases in the characterisation of the gut mycobiome and showed how crucial it is to be aware of these before drawing conclusions from the results of these studies.

Effective Molecular Identification of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi: Revisiting DNA Isolation Methods

A better understanding of ectomycorrhizal symbiosis leads to numerous advancements in forest management and environmental protection. The morphological identification of the ectomycorrhizae often proves to be misleading. For this reason, in order to study the ectomycorrhizal fungi communities, a number of molecular methods that require the isolation of nucleic acids are being used. However, ectomycorrhizal root tips, low mass heterogenic material rich in inhibitors, are a recalcitrant substrate in DNA isolation. It is common for published studies to include some number of unidentified root tips in their results, in spite of diverse isolation protocols being available to researchers. This study aims to analyze the relationship between the collected fungal material and later isolation results, and to propose a DNA isolation protocol specifically optimized for ectomycorrhizal root tips. It was found that the taxonomic position can be used to predict the potential isolation efficiency, with Ascomycota being generally more difficult from which to isolate DNA. After a number of cell lysis and lysate purification methods were evaluated, the joined approach of mechanical and chemical lysis, followed by silica column purification, was found to provide the best results, even with recalcitrant material.

Effects of sample handling on the detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in oral fluids by reverse-transcription real-time PCR

We evaluated effects of handling procedures on detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in oral fluids (OFs) by reverse-transcription real-time PCR (RT-rtPCR). The experiments were conducted using a composite sample of PRRSV-positive OF collected from 5-wk-old pigs vaccinated 15 d earlier with a modified-live PRRSV vaccine. Five pre-extraction sample-handling steps and all combinations thereof were evaluated: 1) thaw temperature (4°C or 25°C); 2) sample diluent (1:1 dilution with nuclease-free water or guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol); 3a) sonication of the sample (yes or no); 3b) temperature (4°C or 25°C) at which step 3a was conducted; and 4) temperature at which the sample was maintained after step 3b and until RNA extraction was initiated (4°C or 25°C). All combinations of the 5 sample-handling steps (i.e., 32 unique treatments) were tested in a completely randomized factorial design with 4 replicates and 1 negative control for each treatment. The entire experiment was repeated on 5 separate days to produce a total of 800 PRRSV RT-rtPCR results. Binary (positive or negative) data were analyzed by logistic regression and results (Ct) were analyzed using a generalized linear model. Overall, 1 false-positive result was observed among 160 negative controls (99.4% specificity), and 85 false-negative results were observed among the 640 known-positive samples (86.7% sensitivity). The most significant factor affecting test outcome was thaw temperature (4°C or 25°C); samples thawed at 4°C had higher positivity rate (94% vs. 80%, p < 0.0001) and lower Ct (36.2 vs. 37.5, p < 0.0001).

Evidence for transovarial transmission of tick-borne rickettsiae circulating in Northern Mongolia

Transstadial transmission of tick-borne rickettsiae has been well documented. Few studies, however, have evaluated the role of transovarial transmission of tick-borne rickettsiae, particularly in nature within the host-vector ecosystem. This cross-sectional study aimed to understand the role of transovarial transmission of tick-borne rickettsiae among feeding ticks at different life stages. Tick eggs laid by engorged wild-caught adult female ticks were pooled and tested for Rickettsia spp. and Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. using molecular techniques, while adult fed ticks were tested individually. Additionally, larval and nymphal ticks were collected in the wild from small mammals, pooled and tested for Rickettsia spp. and Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. There were 38 fed adult and 618 larvae/nymphs (60 pools total) Dermacentor spp. ticks collected from livestock and rodents. All individual adult ticks and tick pools were positive for Rickettsia spp. While none of the larvae/nymphs were positive for Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp., two adult fed ticks were positive. Rickettsia spp. DNA was detected in 91% (30/33) of the pooled eggs tested, and one pool of eggs tested positive for Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. Sequencing data revealed Rickettsia spp. shared ≥99% identity with R. raoultii ompA. Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. shared ≥89% identity with A. ovis 16S ribosomal RNA. This study identified potential transovarial transmission of Rickettsia spp. and Anaplasma spp. among D. nuttalli ticks. Additional studies are needed to further assess the proportion of transovarial transmission occurring in nature to better understand the burden and disease ecology of tick-borne rickettsiae in Mongolia.

In this study, we evaluate the probability or likelihood that tick-borne rickettsiae might be transmitted vertically from wild engorged adult female ticks collected throughout the Northern region of Mongolia during the summer of 2016. While significant effort has been directed to study tick-borne rickettsiae, this public health challenge is complicated by the limited knowledge and understanding of tick and tick-borne rickettsiae ecology within Mongolia. Tick-borne rickettsiae of concern to humans and animals in this region of the world are Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp., and Ehrlichia spp. Using molecular techniques, we detected rickettsiae among all Dermacentor spp. tick life stages and demonstrated potential vertical transmission of Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasma spp. among wild engorged adult female Dermacentor nuttalli ticks. We believe our findings provide important information regarding the ecology of key rickettsiae associated with tick-borne disease in Mongolia.

Combined bacterial and fungal intestinal microbiota analyses: Impact of storage conditions and DNA extraction protocols

Background

The human intestinal microbiota contains a vast community of microorganisms increasingly studied using high-throughput DNA sequencing. Standardized protocols for storage and DNA extraction from fecal samples have been established mostly for bacterial microbiota analysis. Here, we investigated the impact of storage and DNA extraction on bacterial and fungal community structures detected concomitantly.

Methods

Fecal samples from healthy adults were stored at -80°C as such or diluted in RNAlater® and subjected to 2 extraction protocols with mechanical lysis: the Powersoil® MoBio kit or the International Human Microbiota Standard (IHMS) Protocol Q. Libraries of the 12 samples targeting the V3-V4 16S and the ITS1 regions were prepared using Metabiote® (Genoscreen) and sequenced on GS-FLX-454. Sequencing data were analysed using SHAMAN (http://shaman.pasteur.fr/). The bacterial and fungal microbiota were compared in terms of diversity and relative abundance.

Results

We obtained 171869 and 199089 quality-controlled reads for 16S and ITS, respectively. All 16S reads were assigned to 41 bacterial genera; only 52% of ITS reads were assigned to 40 fungal genera/section. Rarefaction curves were satisfactory in 3/3 and 2/3 subjects for 16S and ITS, respectively. PCoA showed important inter-individual variability of intestinal microbiota largely overweighing the effect of storage or extraction. Storage in RNAlater® impacted (downward trend) the relative abundances of 7/41 bacterial and 6/40 fungal taxa, while extraction impacted randomly 18/41 bacterial taxa and 1/40 fungal taxon.

Conclusion

Our results showed that RNAlater® moderately impacts bacterial or fungal community structures, while extraction significantly influences the bacterial composition. For combined bacterial and fungal intestinal microbiota analysis, immediate sample freezing should be preferred when feasible, but storage in RNAlater® remains an option under unfavourable conditions or for concomitant metatranscriptomic analysis; and extraction should rely on protocols validated for bacterial analysis, such as IHMS Protocol Q, and including a powerful mechanical lysis, essential for fungal extraction.

An alternative DNA extraction method for detection of Blastocystis spp. in human fecal samples

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an effective technique for diagnosis of Blastocystis infection. Notably, DNA isolation procedure is extremely critical for the PCR step. In the present study, a recently described extraction procedure, named as the "sand method" was modified and adapted for isolation of Blastocystis DNA. To evaluate its efficacy, the current method and QIAamp DNA Stool Mini Kit (Qiagen) were applied to fresh human stool samples. Our results indicated that, the mean DNA concentrations obtained by the sand method and the commercial kit were 48 and 55 ng/μl, respectively. Also, no DNA inhibitors were detected in two methods. The sand method was capable of detecting 16 parasites per 50 mg feces. DNA samples extracted by both methods were subjected to PCR. Blastocystis spp. were detected in 11 (31.4%) of 35 samples, and perfect agreement (κ: 1.000) was found between the PCR-sand method and PCR-commercial kit method. The samples that were detected positive by PCR-sand method were successfully sequenced, and Blastocystis subtypes (STs) were identified as ST3, ST2 and ST1. In conclusion, the present study indicates that the sand method provides a simple, rapid and inexpensive procedure for reliable extraction of Blastocystis DNA from stool samples.

Toxic reagents and expensive equipment: are they really necessary for the extraction of good quality fungal DNA?

The aim of this work was to evaluate a fungal DNA extraction procedure with the lowest inputs in terms of time as well as of expensive and toxic chemicals, but able to consistently produce genomic DNA of good quality for PCR purposes. Two types of fungal biological material were tested - mycelium and conidia - combined with two protocols for DNA extraction using Sodium Dodecyl Sulphate (SDS) and Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide as extraction buffers and glass beads for mechanical disruption of cell walls. Our results showed that conidia and SDS buffer was the combination that lead to the best DNA quality and yield, with the lowest variation between samples. This study clearly demonstrates that it is possible to obtain high yield and pure DNA from pigmented conidia without the use of strong cell disrupting procedures and of toxic reagents.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

There are numerous methods for DNA extraction from fungi. Some rely on expensive commercial kits and/or equipments, unavailable for many laboratories, or make use of toxic chemicals such as chloroform, phenol and mercaptoethanol. This study clearly demonstrates that it is possible to obtain high yields of pure DNA from pigmented conidia without the use of strong and expensive cell disrupting procedures and of toxic reagents. The method herein described is simultaneously inexpensive and adequate to DNA extraction from several different types of fungi.

Identification of isoliquiritigenin as an activator that stimulates the enzymatic production of glycyrrhetinic acid monoglucuronide

Glycyrrhetinic acid monoglucuronide (GAMG) is a great value-added and has considerable commercial interest due to its strong pharmacological activities and functional low-calorie sweetener. However GAMG is quite rare in natural plants, and it must be prepared from glycyrrhizin (GL) by hydrolysing one terminal glucuronic acid. β-Glucuronidase is the key enzyme in the biotransformation of GL to GAMG, but its activities need to be enhanced to facilitate the industrial large-scale production of GAMG. In this study, we identified that isoliquiritigenin (ISL), as one of chemical compositions from the total flavonoids glycyrrhiza (TFG), can significantly enhance β-glucuronidase activity in vitro. Measurements using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) showed that the activity of β-glucuronidase could be increased by 2.66-fold via the addition of ISL to a β-glucuronidase solution that contained GL at a 3:10 molar ratio of ISL to GL. ISL was concluded to be an activator because ISL could reduce the Km and Ea of β-glucuronidase reacting with GL. This study sheds new light on the mechanism of β-glucuronidase and helps to make industrial production of GAMG through fermentation feasible.

Molecular Identification and Antifungal Susceptibility Patterns of Clinical Dermatophytes Following CLSI and EUCAST Guidelines

Dermatophytes are associated with superficial infections in humans worldwide. The aim of the present study was to determine the species distribution and susceptibility patterns of clinical dermatophytes. Samples received for routine mycological processing from 124 suspected cases attending a dermatologic clinic in a tertiary care hospital were included in the study. On direct microscopy, 74.1% (92/124) were positive and 53.2% (66/124) grew on culture. The isolates were comprised of Trichophytoninterdigitale (56%) followed by Trichophytontonsurans (25.7%), Trichophytonrubrum (7.5%), Trichophytonviolaceum (4.5%), Microsporumgypseum (4.5%), and Trichophytonverrucosum (1.5%). Conventional mycological identification was concordant with ITS sequencing except for T.mentagrophytes. High minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values (geometric mean, >1 µg/mL) were observed for T.tonsurans and T.rubrum to terbinafine and griseofulvin. This study highlights the shift in epidemiology from T.rubrum to T.interdigitale. It also raises a concern of high MICs of terbinafine and griseofulvin among our isolates. Surveillance of antifungal susceptibility patterns can provide clinicians with local MIC data that can further aid in guiding better management in relapse cases of dermatomycosis.

The fungal composition of natural biofinishes on oil-treated wood

BACKGROUND

Biofinished wood is considered to be a decorative and protective material for outdoor constructions, showing advantages compared to traditional treated wood in terms of sustainability and self-repair. Natural dark wood staining fungi are essential to biofinish formation on wood. Although all sorts of outdoor situated timber are subjected to fungal staining, the homogenous dark staining called biofinish has only been detected on specific vegetable oil-treated substrates. Revealing the fungal composition of various natural biofinishes on wood is a first step to understand and control biofinish formation for industrial application.

RESULTS

A culture-based survey of fungi in natural biofinishes on oil-treated wood samples showed the common wood stain fungus Aureobasidium and the recently described genus Superstratomyces to be predominant constituents. A culture-independent approach, based on amplification of the internal transcribed spacer regions, cloning and Sanger sequencing, resulted in clone libraries of two types of biofinishes. Aureobasidium was present in both biofinish types, but was only predominant in biofinishes on pine sapwood treated with raw linseed oil. Most cloned sequences of the other biofinish type (pine sapwood treated with olive oil) could not be identified. In addition, a more in-depth overview of the fungal composition of biofinishes was obtained with Illumina amplicon sequencing that targeted the internal transcribed spacer region 1. All investigated samples, that varied in wood species, (oil) treatments and exposure times, contained Aureobasidium and this genus was predominant in the biofinishes on pine sapwood treated with raw linseed oil. Lapidomyces was the predominant genus in most of the other biofinishes and present in all other samples. Surprisingly, Superstratomyces, which was predominantly detected by the cultivation-based approach, could not be found with the Illumina sequencing approach, while Lapidomyces was not detected in the culture-based approach.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the culture-based approach and two culture-independent methods that were used in this study revealed that natural biofinishes were composed of multiple fungal genera always containing the common wood staining mould Aureobasidium. Besides Aureobasidium, the use of other fungal genera for the production of biofinished wood has to be considered.

Construction of Aspergillus niger integrated with cellulase gene from Ampullaria gigas Spix for improved enzyme production and saccharification of alkaline-pretreated rice straw

Aspergillus niger is an important microorganism that has been used for decades to produce extracellular enzymes. In this study, a novel Aspergillus niger strain integrated with a eukaryotic expression vector harboring the gpd-Shi promoter of shiitake mushrooms and cellulase gene of Ampullaria gigas Spix was engineered to improve cellulase production for the achievement of highly efficient saccharification of agricultural residues. In one strain, designated ACShi27, which exhibited the highest total cellulase expression, total cellulase, endoglucanase, exoglucanase, and xylanase expression levels were 1.73, 16.23, 17.73, and 150.83 U ml⁻¹, respectively; these values were 14.5, 22.3, 24.6, and 17.3% higher than those of the wild-type Aspergillus niger M85 using wheat bran as an induction substrate. Production of cellulases and xylanase by solid-state fermentation followed by in situ saccharification of ACShi27 was investigated with alkaline-pretreated rice straw as a substrate. After 2 days of enzyme induction at 30 °C, followed by 48 h of saccharification at 50 °C, the conversion rate of carbon polymers into reducing sugar reached 293.2 mg g⁻¹, which was 1.23-fold higher than that of the wild-type strain. The expression of sestc in Aspergillus niger can improve the total cellulase and xylanase activity and synergism, thereby enhancing the lignocellulose in situ saccharification.

Modelling the effect of temperature, water activity and carbon dioxide on the growth of Aspergillus niger and Alternaria alternata isolated from fresh date fruit

AIMS

To quantify and model the combined effects of temperature (T) (10-40°C), water activity (a_w ) (0·993-0·818) and CO₂ concentration (9·4-55·1%, v/v) on the growth rate of Aspergillus niger and Alternaria alternata that cause spoilage during the storage and packaging of dates.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The effects of environmental factors were studied using the γ-concept. Cardinal models were used to quantify the effect of studied environmental factors on the growth rates. Firstly, the cardinal parameters were estimated independently from experiments carried out on potato dextrose agar using a monofactorial design. Secondly, model performance evaluation was conducted on pasteurized date paste. The boundary between growth and no-growth was predicted using a deterministic approach. Aspergillus niger displayed a faster growth rate and higher tolerance to low a_w than Al. alternata, which in turn proved more resistant to CO₂ concentration. Minimal cardinal parameters of T and a_w were lower than those reported in the literature.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of the a_w and CO₂ effects significantly affected As. niger and Al. alternata growth. The γ-concept model overestimated growth rates, however, it is optimistic and provides somewhat conservative predictions.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

The developed model provides a decision support tool for the choice of the date fruit conservation mode (refrigeration, drying, modified atmospheric packaging or their combination) using T, a_w and CO₂ as environmental factors.

Optimized methods for total nucleic acid extraction and quantification of the bat white-nose syndrome fungus, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, from swab and environmental samples

The continued spread of white-nose syndrome and its impacts on hibernating bat populations across North America has prompted nationwide surveillance efforts and the need for high-throughput, noninvasive diagnostic tools. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis has been increasingly used for detection of the causative fungus, Pseudogymnoascus destructans, in both bat- and environment-associated samples and provides a tool for quantification of fungal DNA useful for research and monitoring purposes. However, precise quantification of nucleic acid from P. destructans is dependent on effective and standardized methods for extracting nucleic acid from various relevant sample types. We describe optimized methodologies for extracting fungal nucleic acids from sediment, guano, and swab-based samples using commercial kits together with a combination of chemical, enzymatic, and mechanical modifications. Additionally, we define modifications to a previously published intergenic spacer-based qPCR test for P. destructans to refine quantification capabilities of this assay.

The diversity of microfungi in peatlands originated from the White Sea

The diversity of culturable filamentous microfungi in peat and sediments of four peatlands at the coastal zone of Kandalaksha Bay of the White Sea (Murmansk region, Russia) was studied by culture methods on standard and selective media. Annually 100 samples were collected from the bogs 2007-2010. Based on morphological, molecular markers and cultural features, 211 taxa were identified. Fungal communities observed at the peatlands were influenced mostly by their sea origin. We discovered a large difference between fungal communities from the peat and the sediments of the peatlands. In contrast to the sediments, the fungal community of the peat was found to be consistent throughout sampling sites. Fungi with specific ecophysiology, such as Sphagnum-decomposing species (Oidiodendron griseum, O. tenuissimum. Penicillium spinulosum, P. thomii, Talaromyces funiculosus), psychrotolerant and associated with insects species (Pseudogymnoascus pannorum, Tolypocladium spp.), typical marine species (Acremonium spp.) were found. In addition, different types of sterile mycelia were characteristic for the researched peatlands.

Effort versus Reward: Preparing Samples for Fungal Community Characterization in High-Throughput Sequencing Surveys of Soils

Next generation fungal amplicon sequencing is being used with increasing frequency to study fungal diversity in various ecosystems; however, the influence of sample preparation on the characterization of fungal community is poorly understood. We investigated the effects of four procedural modifications to library preparation for high-throughput sequencing (HTS). The following treatments were considered: 1) the amount of soil used in DNA extraction, 2) the inclusion of additional steps (freeze/thaw cycles, sonication, or hot water bath incubation) in the extraction procedure, 3) the amount of DNA template used in PCR, and 4) the effect of sample pooling, either physically or computationally. Soils from two different ecosystems in Minnesota, USA, one prairie and one forest site, were used to assess the generality of our results. The first three treatments did not significantly influence observed fungal OTU richness or community structure at either site. Physical pooling captured more OTU richness compared to individual samples, but total OTU richness at each site was highest when individual samples were computationally combined. We conclude that standard extraction kit protocols are well optimized for fungal HTS surveys, but because sample pooling can significantly influence OTU richness estimates, it is important to carefully consider the study aims when planning sampling procedures.

Reconstruction of the original mycoflora in pelleted feed by PCR-SSCP and qPCR

Ground feeds for pigs were investigated for fungal contamination before and after pelleting (subsamples in total n = 24) by cultural and molecular biological methods. A fungal-specific primer pair ITS1/ITS5.8R was used to amplify fungal DNA; PCR products were processed for the PCR-SSCP method. In the resulting acrylamide gel, more than 85% of DNA bands of ground feeds were preserved after pelleting. Twenty-two DNA bands were sequenced; all represented fungal DNA. The level of fungal DNA in ground feed samples was equivalent to 4.77-5.69 log10  CFU g(-1) , calculated by qPCR using a standard curve of Aspergillus flavus. In pelleted feed, the level of fungal DNA was in average ± 0.07 log10 different from ground feed. Quantified by cultural methods, the fresh ground feeds contained up to 4.51 log10  CFU g(-1) culturable fungi, while there was < 2.83 log10  CFU g(-1) detected in pelleted feeds. This result shows that, while the process of pelleting reduced the amount of living fungi dramatically, it did not affect the total fungal DNA in feed. Thus, the described methodology was able to reconstruct the fungal microbiota in feeds and reflected a considerable fungal contamination of raw materials such as grains.

Comparison of four automated nucleic acid extraction platforms for the recovery of DNA from Aspergillus fumigatus

Invasive aspergillosis is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality within at-risk groups. Directed antifungal chemotherapy, guided by effective screening algorithms that incorporate reliable and validated molecular assays, reduces the morbidity associated with empirical administration and allows earlier diagnosis. The efficient extraction of nucleic acid from Aspergillus fumigatus is the main limiting factor for successful Aspergillus PCR from clinical specimens. With the integration of automated extraction platforms, assessment of the suitability of these platforms for specific targets is of paramount importance. In this study, four extraction robots (Applied Biosystems MagMAX, bioMérieux easyMAG, Qiagen EZ1 and Roche MagNA Pure LC) were evaluated for their ability to extract clinically significant levels of A. fumigatus from blood. All of the platforms could detect 10(1) c.f.u. ml(-1) from EDTA whole blood, although only the easyMAG, EZ1 and MagNA Pure had 100 % reproducibility at this level. Despite good analytical sensitivity, contamination associated with the easyMAG platform excluded its use for diagnostic Aspergillus PCR. The EZ1 and MagNA Pure platforms demonstrated equivalent high sensitivity and negative predictive values (97.4-100 %), essential for screening assays.

Simple and rapid method for the detection of Filobasidiella neoformans in a probiotic dairy product by using loop-mediated isothermal amplification

Yeast contamination is a serious problem in the food industry and a major cause of food spoilage. Several yeasts, such as Filobasidiella neoformans, which cause cryptococcosis in humans, are also opportunistic pathogens, so a simple and rapid method for monitoring yeast contamination in food is essential. Here, we developed a simple and rapid method that utilizes loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for the detection of F. neoformans. A set of five specific LAMP primers was designed that targeted the 5.8S-26S rDNA internal transcribed spacer 2 region of F. neoformans, and the primer set's specificity was confirmed. In a pure culture of F. neoformans, the LAMP assay had a lower sensitivity threshold of 10(2)cells/mL at a runtime of 60min. In a probiotic dairy product artificially contaminated with F. neoformans, the LAMP assay also had a lower sensitivity threshold of 10(2)cells/mL, which was comparable to the sensitivity of a quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay. We also developed a simple two-step method for the extraction of DNA from a probiotic dairy product that can be performed within 15min. This method involves initial protease treatment of the test sample at 45°C for 3min followed by boiling at 100°C for 5min under alkaline conditions. In a probiotic dairy product artificially contaminated with F. neoformans, analysis by means of our novel DNA extraction method followed by LAMP with our specific primer set had a lower sensitivity threshold of 10(3)cells/mL at a runtime of 60min. In contrast, use of our novel method of DNA extraction followed by qPCR assay had a lower sensitivity threshold of only 10(5)cells/mL at a runtime of 3 to 4h. Therefore, unlike the PCR assay, our LAMP assay can be used to quickly evaluate yeast contamination and is sensitive even for crude samples containing bacteria or background impurities. Our study provides a powerful tool for the primary screening of large numbers of food samples for yeast contamination.

Winter-summer succession of unicellular eukaryotes in a meso-eutrophic coastal system

The objective of this study was to explore the succession of planktonic unicellular eukaryotes by means of 18S rRNA gene tag pyrosequencing in the eastern English Channel (EEC) during the winter to summer transition. The 59 most representative (>0.1%, representing altogether 95% of total reads), unique operational taxonomic units (OTUs) from all samples belonged to 18 known high-level taxonomic groups and 1 unaffiliated clade. The five most abundant OTUs (69.2% of total reads) belonged to Dinophyceae, Cercozoa, Haptophyceae, marine alveolate group I, and Fungi. Cluster and network analysis between samples distinguished the winter, the pre-bloom, the Phaeocystis globosa bloom and the post-bloom early summer conditions. The OTUs-based network revealed that P. globosa showed a relatively low number of connections-most of them negative-with all other OTUs. Fungi were linked to all major taxonomic groups, except Dinophyceae. Cercozoa mostly co-occurred with the Fungi, the Bacillariophyceae and several of the miscellaneous OTUs. This study provided a more detailed exploration into the planktonic succession pattern of the EEC due to its increased depth of taxonomic sampling over previous efforts based on classical monitoring observations. Data analysis implied that the food web concept in a coastal system based on predator-prey (e.g. grazer-phytoplankton) relationships is just a part of the ecological picture; and those organisms exploiting a variety of strategies, such as saprotrophy and parasitism, are persistent and abundant members of the community.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)-based method for rapid mushroom species identification

Toxic mushroom species, such as the death cap ( Amanita phalloides ), are responsible for most mushroom poisonings. In the present work, novel loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays were used for the differentiation of even closely related edible and toxic mushroom species. The applicability of these methods was tested by cross-reaction studies and analysis of spiked mushroom samples (raw and fried material). Contaminations at the level of 2% (w/w) could be detected in different mushroom blends. Three detection methods were used: agarose gel analysis, fluorimetric real-time detection, and visual detection by lateral flow dipsticks (LFD). The LAMP assay combined with LFD detection allows the identification of A. phalloides in about 2 h (including DNA extraction) at a very low level of technical equipment (micropestle, water bath, and mobile centrifuge), which makes this technique perfectly suited for on-site applications.

PCR-SSCP-based reconstruction of the original fungal flora of heat-processed meat products

Food processing of spoiled meat is prohibited by law, since it is a deception and does not comply with food safety aspects. In general, spoilage of meat is mostly caused by bacteria. However, a high contamination level of fungi could be also found in some meat or meat products with certain preserving conditions. In case that unhygienic meat is used to produce heat processed products, the microorganisms will be deactivated by heat, so that they cannot be detected by a standard cultivation method. Therefore, this study aimed to develop and apply a molecular biological method--polymerase chain reaction and single strand conformation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP)--to reconstruct the original fungal flora of heat processed meat. Twenty primer pairs were tested for their specificity for fungal DNA. Since none of them fully complied with all study criteria (such as high specificity and sensitivity for fungal DNA; suitability of the products for PCR-SSCP) in the matrix "meat", we designed a new reverse primer, ITS5.8R. The primer pair ITS1/ITS5.8R amplified DNA from all tested fungal species, but not DNA from meat-producing animals or from ingredients of plant origin (spices). For the final test, 32 DNA bands in acrylamide gel from 15 meat products and 1 soy sauce were sequenced-all originating from fungal species, which were, in other studies, reported to contaminate meat e.g. Alternaria alternata, Aureobasidium pullulans, Candida rugosa, C. tropicalis, C. zeylanoides, Eurotium amstelodami and Pichia membranifaciens, and/or spices such as Botrytis aclada, Guignardia mangiferae, Itersonilia perplexans, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Lewia infectoria, Neofusicoccum parvum and Pleospora herbarum. This confirms the suitability of PCR-SSCP to specifically detect fungal DNA in heat processed meat products, and thus provides an overview of fungal species contaminating raw material such as meat and spices.

Development of a peptide nucleic acid probe to Trichosporon species and identification of trichosporonosis by use of in situ hybridization in formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded (FFPE) sections

In order to identify Trichosporon species in formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded sections from which visual discrimination of non-glabrata Candida species is mostly ineffective but critical for the choice of antifungals, we tested the usefulness of a newly designed peptide nucleic acid probe (PNA) for in situ hybridization (ISH). Results confirmed the usefulness of ISH with our PNA probe in identifying Trichosporon species from Candida albicans.

Microplanktonic community structure in a coastal system relative to a Phaeocystis bloom inferred from morphological and tag pyrosequencing methods

Background

Massive phytoplankton blooms, like the recurrent Phaeocystis proliferation observed every year in the Eastern English Channel (EEC), have a significant influence on the overall planktonic community structure and their food web dynamics. As well as being an important area for local fisheries, the EEC is an ideal ecosystem for work on microbial diversity. This is because, although its environmental context is relatively complex, it is reasonably well understood due to several years of monitoring and morphological observations of its planktonic organisms. The objective of our study was to better understand the under-explored microbial eukaryotic diversity relative to the Phaeocystis bloom.

Methodology and Principal Findings

The community structure of microplankton (diatoms, haptophytes, ciliates and dinoflagellates) was studied through morphological observations and tag pyrosequencing. During the annual Phaeocystis spring bloom, the phytoplankton biomass increased by 34-fold, while the microzooplankton biomass showed a 4-fold increase, representing on average about 4.6% of the biomass of their phytoplankton prey. Tag pyrosequencing unveiled an extensive diversity of Gymnodiniaceae, with G. spirale and G. fusiformis representing the most abundant reads. An extended diversity of Phaeocystales, with partial 18S rDNA genes sequence identity as low as 85% was found, with taxa corresponding to P. globosa, but also to unknown Phaeocystaceae.

Conclusions

Morphological analyses and pyrosequencing were generally in accordance with capturing frequency shifts of abundant taxa. Tag pyrosequencing allowed highlighting the maintenance of microplankton diversity during the Phaeocystis bloom and the increase of the taxa presenting low number of reads (minor taxa) along with the dominant ones in response to biotic and/or abiotic changing conditions. Although molecular approaches have enhanced our perception on diversity, it has come to light that the challenge of modelling and predicting ecological change requires the use of different complementary approaches, to link taxonomic data with the functional roles of microbes in biogeochemical cycles.

Development and preliminary evaluation of a real-time PCR assay for Halioticida noduliformans in abalone tissues

Abalone Haliotis midae exhibiting typical clinical signs of tubercle mycosis were discovered in South African culture facilities in 2006, posing a significant threat to the industry. The fungus responsible for the outbreak was identified as a Peronosporomycete, Halioticida noduliformans. Currently, histopathology and gross observation are used to diagnose this disease, but these 2 methods are neither rapid nor sensitive enough to provide accurate and reliable diagnosis. Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) is a rapid and reliable method for the detection and quantification of a variety of pathogens, so therefore we aimed to develop a qPCR assay for species-specific detection and quantification of H. noduliformans. Effective extraction of H. noduliformans genomic DNA from laboratory grown cultures, as well as from spiked abalone tissues, was accomplished by grinding samples using a pellet pestle followed by heat lysis in the presence of Chelax-100 beads. A set of oligonucleotide primers was designed to specifically amplify H. noduliformans DNA in the large subunit (LSU) rRNA gene, and tested for cross-reactivity to DNA extracted from related and non-related fungi isolated from seaweeds, crustaceans and healthy abalone; no cross-amplification was detected. When performing PCR assays in an abalone tissue matrix, an environment designed to be a non-sterile simulation of environmental conditions, no amplification occurred in the negative controls. The qPCR assay sensitivity was determined to be approximately 0.28 pg of fungal DNA (~2.3 spores) in a 25 µl reaction volume. Our qPCR technique will be useful for monitoring and quantifying H. noduliformans for the surveillance and management of abalone tubercle mycosis in South Africa.