Targeting Spt5-Pol II by Small-Molecule Inhibitors Uncouples Distinct Activities and Reveals Additional Regulatory Roles

The transcription elongation factors Spt4 and Spt5 control neural progenitor proliferation and are implicated in neuronal remodeling during Drosophila mushroom body development

Spt4 and Spt5 form the DRB sensitivity inducing factor (DSIF) complex that regulates transcription elongation at multiple steps including promotor-proximal pausing, processivity and termination. Although this implicated a general role in transcription, several studies pointed to smaller sets of target genes and indicated a more specific requirement in certain cellular contexts. To unravel common or distinct functions of Spt4 and Spt5 in vivo, we generated knock-out alleles for both genes in Drosophila melanogaster. Using the development of the mushroom bodies as a model, we provided evidence for two common functions of Spt4 and Spt5 during mushroom body development, namely control of cell proliferation of neural progenitor cells and remodeling of axonal projections of certain mushroom body neurons. This latter function is not due to a general requirement of Spt4 and Spt5 for axon pathfinding of mushroom body neurons, but due to distinct effects on the expression of genes controlling remodeling.

Kinetic pathway of HIV-1 TAR cotranscriptional folding

The Trans-Activator Receptor (TAR) RNA, located at the 5'-end untranslated region (5' UTR) of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), is pivotal in the virus's life cycle. As the initial functional domain, it folds during the transcription of viral mRNA. Although TAR's role in recruiting the Tat protein for trans-activation is established, the detailed kinetic mechanisms at play during early transcription, especially at points of temporary transcriptional pausing, remain elusive. Moreover, the precise physical processes of transcriptional pause and subsequent escape are not fully elucidated. This study focuses on the folding kinetics of TAR and the biological implications by integrating computer simulations of RNA folding during transcription with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy data. The findings reveal insights into the folding mechanism of a non-native intermediate that triggers transcriptional pause, along with different folding pathways leading to transcriptional pause and readthrough. The profiling of the cotranscriptional folding pathway and identification of kinetic structural intermediates reveal a novel mechanism for viral transcriptional regulation, which could pave the way for new antiviral drug designs targeting kinetic cotranscriptional folding pathways in viral RNAs.

Lowering mutant huntingtin by small molecules relieves Huntington's disease symptoms and progression

Huntington's disease (HD) is an incurable inherited disorder caused by a repeated expansion of glutamines in the huntingtin gene (Htt). The mutant protein causes neuronal degeneration leading to severe motor and psychological symptoms. Selective downregulation of the mutant Htt gene expression is considered the most promising therapeutic approach for HD. We report the identification of small molecule inhibitors of Spt5-Pol II, SPI-24 and SPI-77, which selectively lower mutant Htt mRNA and protein levels in HD cells. In the BACHD mouse model, their direct delivery to the striatum diminished mutant Htt levels, ameliorated mitochondrial dysfunction, restored BDNF expression, and improved motor and anxiety-like phenotypes. Pharmacokinetic studies revealed that these SPIs pass the blood-brain-barrier. Prolonged subcutaneous injection or oral administration to early-stage mice significantly delayed disease deterioration. SPI-24 long-term treatment had no side effects or global changes in gene expression. Thus, lowering mutant Htt levels by small molecules can be an effective therapeutic strategy for HD.

Binding of small molecule inhibitors to RNA polymerase-Spt5 complex impacts RNA and DNA stability

Spt5 is an elongation factor that associates with RNA polymerase II (Pol II) during transcription and has important functions in promoter-proximal pausing and elongation processivity. Spt5 was also recognized for its roles in the transcription of expanded-repeat genes that are related to neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, a set of Spt5-Pol II small molecule inhibitors (SPIs) were reported, which selectively inhibit mutant huntingtin gene transcription. Inhibition mechanisms as well as interaction sites of these SPIs with Pol II and Spt5 are not entirely known. In this study, we predicted the binding sites of three selected SPIs at the Pol II-Spt5 interface by docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Two molecules out of three demonstrated strong binding with Spt5 and Pol II, while the other molecule was more loosely bound and sampled multiple binding sites. Strongly bound SPIs indirectly affected RNA and DNA dynamics at the exit site as DNA became more flexible while RNA was stabilized by increased interactions with Spt5. Our results suggest that the transcription inhibition mechanism induced by SPIs can be related to Spt5-nucleic acid interactions, which were altered to some extent with strong binding of SPIs.

RNA polymerase II pausing temporally coordinates cell cycle progression and erythroid differentiation

Controlled release of promoter-proximal paused RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) is crucial for gene regulation. However, studying RNA Pol II pausing is challenging, as pause-release factors are almost all essential. In this study, we identified heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in SUPT5H, which encodes SPT5, in individuals with β-thalassemia. During erythropoiesis in healthy human cells, cell cycle genes were highly paused as cells transition from progenitors to precursors. When the pathogenic mutations were recapitulated by SUPT5H editing, RNA Pol II pause release was globally disrupted, and as cells began transitioning from progenitors to precursors, differentiation was delayed, accompanied by a transient lag in erythroid-specific gene expression and cell cycle kinetics. Despite this delay, cells terminally differentiate, and cell cycle phase distributions normalize. Therefore, hindering pause release perturbs proliferation and differentiation dynamics at a key transition during erythropoiesis, identifying a role for RNA Pol II pausing in temporally coordinating the cell cycle and erythroid differentiation.

RNA Polymerase II pausing temporally coordinates cell cycle progression and erythroid differentiation

The controlled release of promoter-proximal paused RNA polymerase II (Pol II) into productive elongation is a major step in gene regulation. However, functional analysis of Pol II pausing is difficult because factors that regulate pause release are almost all essential. In this study, we identified heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in SUPT5H , which encodes SPT5, in individuals with β-thalassemia unlinked to HBB mutations. During erythropoiesis in healthy human cells, cell cycle genes were highly paused at the transition from progenitors to precursors. When the pathogenic mutations were recapitulated by SUPT5H editing, Pol II pause release was globally disrupted, and the transition from progenitors to precursors was delayed, marked by a transient lag in erythroid-specific gene expression and cell cycle kinetics. Despite this delay, cells terminally differentiate, and cell cycle phase distributions normalize. Therefore, hindering pause release perturbs proliferation and differentiation dynamics at a key transition during erythropoiesis, revealing a role for Pol II pausing in the temporal coordination between the cell cycle and differentiation.

Chemical interference with DSIF complex formation lowers synthesis of mutant huntingtin gene products and curtails mutant phenotypes

Earlier work has shown that siRNA-mediated reduction of the SUPT4H or SUPT5H proteins, which interact to form the DSIF complex and facilitate transcript elongation by RNA polymerase II (RNAPII), can decrease expression of mutant gene alleles containing nucleotide repeat expansions differentially. Using luminescence and fluorescence assays, we identified chemical compounds that interfere with the SUPT4H-SUPT5H interaction and then investigated their effects on synthesis of mRNA and protein encoded by mutant alleles containing repeat expansions in the huntingtin gene (HTT), which causes the inherited neurodegenerative disorder, Huntington's Disease (HD). Here we report that such chemical interference can differentially affect expression of HTT mutant alleles, and that a prototypical chemical, 6-azauridine (6-AZA), that targets the SUPT4H-SUPT5H interaction can modify the biological response to mutant HTT gene expression. Selective and dose-dependent effects of 6-AZA on expression of HTT alleles containing nucleotide repeat expansions were seen in multiple types of cells cultured in vitro, and in a Drosophila melanogaster animal model for HD. Lowering of mutant HD protein and mitigation of the Drosophila "rough eye" phenotype associated with degeneration of photoreceptor neurons in vivo were observed. Our findings indicate that chemical interference with DSIF complex formation can decrease biochemical and phenotypic effects of nucleotide repeat expansions.

Inhibitors of eIF4G1-eIF1 uncover its regulatory role of ER/UPR stress-response genes independent of eIF2α-phosphorylation

During translation initiation, eIF4G1 dynamically interacts with eIF4E and eIF1. While the role of eIF4E-eIF4G1 is well established, the regulatory functions of eIF4G1-eIF1 are poorly understood. Here, we report the identification of the eIF4G1-eIF1 inhibitors i14G1-10 and i14G1-12. i14G1s directly bind eIF4G1 and inhibit translation in vitro and in the cell, and their effects on translation are dependent on eIF4G1 levels. Translatome analyses revealed that i14G1s mimic eIF1 and eIF4G1 perturbations on the stringency of start codon selection and the opposing roles of eIF1-eIF4G1 in scanning-dependent and scanning-independent short 5' untranslated region (UTR) translation. Remarkably, i14G1s activate ER/unfolded protein response (UPR) stress-response genes via enhanced ribosome loading, elevated 5'UTR translation at near-cognate AUGs, and unexpected concomitant up-regulation of coding-region translation. These effects are, at least in part, independent of eIF2α-phosphorylation. Interestingly, eIF4G1-eIF1 interaction itself is negatively regulated by ER stress and mTOR inhibition. Thus, i14G1s uncover an unknown mechanism of ER/UPR translational stress response and are valuable research tools and potential drugs against diseases exhibiting dysregulated translation.

DSIF modulates RNA polymerase II occupancy according to template G + C content

The DSIF complex comprising the Supt4h and Supt5h transcription elongation proteins clamps RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) onto DNA templates, facilitating polymerase processivity. Lowering DSIF components can differentially decrease expression of alleles containing nucleotide repeat expansions, suggesting that RNAPII transit through repeat expansions is dependent on DSIF functions. To globally identify sequence features that affect dependence of the polymerase on DSIF in human cells, we used ultra-deep ChIP-seq analysis and RNA-seq to investigate and quantify the genome-wide effects of Supt4h loss on template occupancy and transcript production. Our results indicate that RNAPII dependence on Supt4h varies according to G + C content. Effects of DSIF knockdown were prominent during transcription of sequences high in G + C but minimal for sequences low in G + C and were particularly evident for G + C-rich segments of long genes. Reanalysis of previously published ChIP-seq data obtained from mouse cells showed similar effects of template G + C composition on Supt5h actions. Our evidence that DSIF dependency varies globally in different template regions according to template sequence composition suggests that G + C content may have a role in the selectivity of Supt4h knockdown and Supt5h knockdown during transcription of gene alleles containing expansions of G + C-rich repeats.

Protocol variations in run-on transcription dataset preparation produce detectable signatures in sequencing libraries

Background

A variety of protocols exist for producing whole genome run-on transcription datasets. However, little is known about how differences between these protocols affect the signal within the resulting libraries.

Results

Using run-on transcription datasets generated from the same biological system, we show that a variety of GRO- and PRO-seq preparation methods leave identifiable signatures within each library. Specifically we show that the library preparation method results in differences in quality control metrics, as well as differences in the signal distribution at the 5 ^′ end of transcribed regions. These shifts lead to disparities in eRNA identification, but do not impact analyses aimed at inferring the key regulators involved in changes to transcription.

Conclusions

Run-on sequencing protocol variations result in technical signatures that can be used to identify both the enrichment and library preparation method of a particular data set. These technical signatures are batch effects that limit detailed comparisons of pausing ratios and eRNAs identified across protocols. However, these batch effects have only limited impact on our ability to infer which regulators underlie the observed transcriptional changes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1186/s12864-022-08352-8).

Protein-fragment complementation assays for large-scale analysis of protein-protein interactions

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) orchestrate nearly all biological processes. They are also considered attractive drug targets for treating many human diseases, including cancers and neurodegenerative disorders. Protein-fragment complementation assays (PCAs) provide a direct and straightforward way to study PPIs in living cells or multicellular organisms. Importantly, PCAs can be used to detect the interaction of proteins expressed at endogenous levels in their native cellular environment. In this review, we present the principle of PCAs and discuss some of their advantages and limitations. We describe their application in large-scale experiments to investigate PPI networks and to screen or profile PPI targeting compounds.

Opposite roles of transcription elongation factors Spt4/5 and Elf1 in RNA polymerase II transcription through B-form versus non-B DNA structures

Transcription elongation can be affected by numerous types of obstacles, such as nucleosome, pausing sequences, DNA lesions and non-B-form DNA structures. Spt4/5 and Elf1 are conserved transcription elongation factors that promote RNA polymerase II (Pol II) bypass of nucleosome and pausing sequences. Importantly, genetic studies have shown that Spt4/5 plays essential roles in the transcription of expanded nucleotide repeat genes associated with inherited neurological diseases. Here, we investigate the function of Spt4/5 and Elf1 in the transcription elongation of CTG•CAG repeat using an in vitro reconstituted yeast transcription system. We found that Spt4/5 helps Pol II transcribe through the CTG•CAG tract duplex DNA, which is in good agreement with its canonical roles in stimulating transcription elongation. In sharp contrast, surprisingly, we revealed that Spt4/5 greatly inhibits Pol II transcriptional bypass of CTG and CAG slip-out structures. Furthermore, we demonstrated that transcription elongation factor Elf1 individually and cooperatively with Spt4/5 inhibits Pol II bypass of the slip-out structures. This study uncovers the important functional interplays between template DNA structures and the function of transcription elongation factors. This study also expands our understanding of the functions of Spt4/5 and Elf1 in transcriptional processing of trinucleotide repeat DNA.

A high-throughput screening to identify small molecules that suppress huntingtin promoter activity or activate huntingtin-antisense promoter activity

Huntington’s disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion in exon 1 of huntingtin (HTT). While there are currently no disease-modifying treatments for HD, recent efforts have focused on the development of nucleotide-based therapeutics to lower HTT expression. As an alternative to siRNA or oligonucleotide methods, we hypothesized that suppression of HTT expression might be accomplished by small molecules that either (1) directly decrease HTT expression by suppressing HTT promoter activity or (2) indirectly decrease HTT expression by increasing the promoter activity of HTT-AS, the gene antisense to HTT that appears to inhibit expression of HTT. We developed and employed a high-throughput screen for modifiers of HTT and HTT-AS promoter activity using luminescent reporter HEK293 cells; of the 52,041 compounds tested, we identified 898 replicable hits. We used a rigorous stepwise approach to assess compound toxicity and the capacity of the compounds to specifically lower huntingtin protein in 5 different cell lines, including HEK293 cells, HD lymphoblastoid cells, mouse primary neurons, HD iPSCs differentiated into cortical-like neurons, and HD hESCs. We found no compounds which were able to lower huntingtin without lowering cell viability in all assays, though the potential efficacy of a few compounds at non-toxic doses could not be excluded. Our results suggest that more specific targets may facilitate a small molecule approach to HTT suppression.

Regulation of Promoter Proximal Pausing of RNA Polymerase II in Metazoans

Regulation of transcription is a tightly choreographed process. The establishment of RNA polymerase II promoter proximal pausing soon after transcription initiation and the release of Pol II into productive elongation are key regulatory processes that occur in early elongation. We describe the techniques and tools that have become available for the study of promoter proximal pausing and their utility for future experiments. We then provide an overview of the factors and interactions that govern a multipartite pausing process and address emerging questions surrounding the mechanism of RNA polymerase II's subsequent advancement into the gene body. Finally, we address remaining controversies and future areas of study.

Patent highlights August-September 2020

A snapshot of noteworthy recent developments in the patent literature of relevance to pharmaceutical and medical research and development.

Interrupting sequence variants and age of onset in Huntington's disease: clinical implications and emerging therapies

BACKGROUND

Huntington's disease is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder that is caused by CAG-CAA repeat expansion, encoding polyglutamine, in the huntingtin (HTT) gene. Current age-of-clinical-onset prediction models for Huntington's disease are based on polyglutamine length and explain only a proportion of the variability in age of onset observed between patients. These length-based assays do not interrogate the underlying genetic variation, because known genetic variants in this region do not alter the protein coding sequence. Given that individuals with identical repeat lengths can present with Huntington's disease decades apart, the search for genetic modifiers of clinical age of onset has become an active area of research.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Results from three independent genetic studies of Huntington's disease have shown that glutamine-encoding CAA variants that interrupt DNA CAG repeat tracts, but do not alter polyglutamine length or polyglutamine homogeneity, are associated with substantial differences in age of onset of Huntington's disease in carriers. A variant that results in the loss of CAA interruption is associated with early onset and is particularly relevant to individuals that carry alleles in the reduced penetrance range (ie, CAG 36-39). Approximately a third of clinically manifesting carriers of reduced penetrance alleles, defined by current diagnostics, carry this variant. Somatic repeat instability, modified by interrupted CAG tracts, is the most probable cause mediating this effect. This relationship is supported by genome-wide screens for disease modifiers, which have revealed the importance of DNA-repair genes in Huntington's disease (ie, FAN1, LIG1, MLH1, MSH3, PMS1, and PMS2). WHERE NEXT?: Focus needs to be placed on refining our understanding of the effect of the loss-of-interruption and duplication-of-interruption variants and other interrupting sequence variants on age of onset, and assessing their effect in disease-relevant brain tissues, as well as in diverse population groups, such as individuals from Africa and Asia. Diagnostic tests should be augmented or updated, since current tests do not assess the underlying DNA sequence variation, especially when assessing individuals that carry alleles in the reduced penetrance range. Future studies should explore somatic repeat instability and DNA repair as new therapeutic targets to modify age of onset in Huntington's disease and in other repeat-mediated disorders. Disease-modifying therapies could potentially be developed by therapeutically targeting these processes. Promising approaches include therapeutically targeting the expanded repeat or directly perturbing key DNA-repair genes (eg, with antisense oligonucleotides or small molecules). Targeting the CAG repeat directly with naphthyridine-azaquinolone, a compound that induces contractions, and altering the expression of MSH3, represent two viable therapeutic strategies. However, as a first step, the capability of such novel therapeutic approaches to delay clinical onset in animal models should be assessed.

Mechanisms of Transcription Elongation Factor DSIF (Spt4-Spt5)

The transcription elongation factor Spt5 is conserved from bacteria to humans. In eukaryotes, Spt5 forms a complex with Spt4 and regulates processive transcription elongation. Recent studies on transcription elongation suggest different mechanistic roles in yeast versus mammals. Higher eukaryotes utilize Spt4-Spt5 (DSIF) to regulate promoter-proximal pausing, a transcription-regulatory mechanism that connects initiation to productive elongation. DSIF is a versatile transcription factor and has been implicated in both gene-specific regulation and transcription through nucleosomes. Future studies will further elucidate the role of DSIF in transcriptional dynamics and disentangle its inhibitory and enhancing activities in transcription.

GDF15: A Hormone Conveying Somatic Distress to the Brain

GDF15 has recently gained scientific and translational prominence with the discovery that its receptor is a GFRAL-RET heterodimer of which GFRAL is expressed solely in the hindbrain. Activation of this receptor results in reduced food intake and loss of body weight and is perceived and recalled by animals as aversive. This information encourages a revised interpretation of the large body of previous research on the protein. GDF15 can be secreted by a wide variety of cell types in response to a broad range of stressors. We propose that central sensing of GDF15 via GFRAL-RET activation results in behaviors that facilitate the reduction of exposure to a noxious stimulus. The human trophoblast appears to have hijacked this signal, producing large amounts of GDF15 from early pregnancy. We speculate that this encourages avoidance of potential teratogens in pregnancy. Circulating GDF15 levels are elevated in a range of human disease states, including various forms of cachexia, and GDF15-GFRAL antagonism is emerging as a therapeutic strategy for anorexia/cachexia syndromes. Metformin elevates circulating GDF15 chronically in humans and the weight loss caused by this drug appears to be dependent on the rise in GDF15. This supports the concept that chronic activation of the GDF15-GFRAL axis has efficacy as an antiobesity agent. In this review, we examine the science of GDF15 since its identification in 1997 with our interpretation of this body of work now being assisted by a clear understanding of its highly selective central site of action.