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Zhang DY, Wang J, Huang G, Langberg S, Ding F, Dokholyan NV. APOE regulates the transport of GM1. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.02.587789. [PMID: 38617316 PMCID: PMC11014540 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.02.587789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (APOE) is responsible for lipid transport, including cholesterol transport and clearance. While the ε4 allele of APOE (APOE4) is associated with a significant genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD), no mechanistic understanding of its contribution to AD etiology has been established yet. In addition to cholesterol, monosialotetrahexosylganglioside (GM1) is a crucial lipid component in cell membranes and has been implicated in promoting the aggregation of amyloid beta protein (Aβ), a key protein associated with AD. Here, we ask whether there are direct interactions between APOE and GM1 that further impact AD pathology. We find that both APOE3 and APOE4 exhibit superior binding affinity to GM1 compared to cholesterol and have an enhanced cellular uptake to GM1 lipid structures than cholesterol lipid structures. APOE regulates the transport process of GM1 depending on the cell type, which is influenced by the expression of APOE receptors in different cell lines and alters GM1 contents in cell membranes. We also find that the presence of GM1 alters the secondary structure of APOE3 and APOE4 and enhances the binding affinity between APOE and its receptor low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), consequently promoting the cellular uptake of lipid structures in the presence of APOE. To understand the enhanced cellular uptake observed in lipid structures containing 20% GM1, we determined the distribution of GM1 on the membrane and found that GM1 clustering in lipid rafts, thereby supporting the physiological interaction between APOE and GM1. Overall, we find that APOE plays a regulatory role in GM1 transport, and the presence of GM1 on the lipid structures influences this transport process. Our studies introduce a plausible direct link between APOE and AD etiology, wherein APOE regulates GM1, which, in turn, promotes Aβ oligomerization and aggregation.
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Zhang DY, Wang J, Fleeman RM, Kuhn MK, Swulius MT, Proctor EA, Dokholyan NV. Monosialotetrahexosylganglioside Promotes Early Aβ42 Oligomer Formation and Maintenance. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:1979-1991. [PMID: 35713284 PMCID: PMC10137048 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The aggregation of the amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide is associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Cell membrane composition, especially monosialotetrahexosylganglioside (GM1), is known to promote the formation of Aβ fibrils, yet little is known about the roles of GM1 in the early steps of Aβ oligomer formation. Here, by using GM1-contained liposomes as a mimic of the neuronal cell membrane, we demonstrate that GM1 is a critical trigger of Aβ oligomerization and aggregation. We find that GM1 not only promotes the formation of Aβ fibrils but also facilitates the maintenance of Aβ42 oligomers on liposome membranes. We structurally characterize the Aβ42 oligomers formed on the membrane and find that GM1 captures Aβ by binding to its arginine-5 residue. To interrogate the mechanism of Aβ42 oligomer toxicity, we design a new liposome-based Ca2+-encapsulation assay and provide new evidence for the Aβ42 ion channel hypothesis. Finally, we determine the toxicity of Aβ42 oligomers formed on membranes. Overall, by uncovering the roles of GM1 in mediating early Aβ oligomer formation and maintenance, our work provides a novel direction for pharmaceutical research for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Yan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States
| | - Rebecca M Fleeman
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States.,Department of Neurosurgery, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States.,Center for Neural Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States
| | - Madison K Kuhn
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States.,Department of Neurosurgery, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States.,Center for Neural Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States
| | - Matthew T Swulius
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States
| | - Elizabeth A Proctor
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States.,Department of Neurosurgery, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States.,Center for Neural Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States.,Department of Engineering Science & Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States
| | - Nikolay V Dokholyan
- Department of Pharmacology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States.,Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033-0850, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, State College, Pennsylvania 16801, United States
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3
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Saravanan KM, Zhang H, Zhang H, Xi W, Wei Y. On the Conformational Dynamics of β-Amyloid Forming Peptides: A Computational Perspective. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:532. [PMID: 32656188 PMCID: PMC7325929 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the conformational dynamics of proteins and peptides involved in important functions is still a difficult task in computational structural biology. Because such conformational transitions in β-amyloid (Aβ) forming peptides play a crucial role in many neurological disorders, researchers from different scientific fields have been trying to address issues related to the folding of Aβ forming peptides together. Many theoretical models have been proposed in the recent years for studying Aβ peptides using mathematical, physicochemical, and molecular dynamics simulation, and machine learning approaches. In this article, we have comprehensively reviewed the developmental advances in the theoretical models for Aβ peptide folding and interactions, particularly in the context of neurological disorders. Furthermore, we have extensively reviewed the advances in molecular dynamics simulation as a tool used for studying the conversions between polymorphic amyloid forms and applications of using machine learning approaches in predicting Aβ peptides and aggregation-prone regions in proteins. We have also provided details on the theoretical advances in the study of Aβ peptides, which would enhance our understanding of these peptides at the molecular level and eventually lead to the development of targeted therapies for certain acute neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Wenhui Xi
- Center for High Performance Computing, Joint Engineering Research Center for Health Big Data Intelligent Analysis Technology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yanjie Wei
- Center for High Performance Computing, Joint Engineering Research Center for Health Big Data Intelligent Analysis Technology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China
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Muller MP, Jiang T, Sun C, Lihan M, Pant S, Mahinthichaichan P, Trifan A, Tajkhorshid E. Characterization of Lipid-Protein Interactions and Lipid-Mediated Modulation of Membrane Protein Function through Molecular Simulation. Chem Rev 2019; 119:6086-6161. [PMID: 30978005 PMCID: PMC6506392 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The cellular membrane constitutes one of the most fundamental compartments of a living cell, where key processes such as selective transport of material and exchange of information between the cell and its environment are mediated by proteins that are closely associated with the membrane. The heterogeneity of lipid composition of biological membranes and the effect of lipid molecules on the structure, dynamics, and function of membrane proteins are now widely recognized. Characterization of these functionally important lipid-protein interactions with experimental techniques is however still prohibitively challenging. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations offer a powerful complementary approach with sufficient temporal and spatial resolutions to gain atomic-level structural information and energetics on lipid-protein interactions. In this review, we aim to provide a broad survey of MD simulations focusing on exploring lipid-protein interactions and characterizing lipid-modulated protein structure and dynamics that have been successful in providing novel insight into the mechanism of membrane protein function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie P. Muller
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- College of Medicine
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Tao Jiang
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Chang Sun
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Muyun Lihan
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Shashank Pant
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Paween Mahinthichaichan
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Anda Trifan
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Emad Tajkhorshid
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- College of Medicine
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Wang X, Tao S, Cong P, Wang Y, Xu J, Xue C. Neuroprotection of Strongylocentrotus nudus gangliosides against Alzheimer’s disease via regulation of neurite loss and mitochondrial apoptosis. J Funct Foods 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2017.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
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6
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Cebecauer M, Hof M, Amaro M. Impact of GM 1 on Membrane-Mediated Aggregation/Oligomerization of β-Amyloid: Unifying View. Biophys J 2017; 113:1194-1199. [PMID: 28410623 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2017.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In this perspective we summarize current knowledge of the effect of monosialoganglioside GM1 on the membrane-mediated aggregation of the β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide. GM1 has been suggested to be actively involved in the development of Alzheimer's disease due to its ability to seed the aggregation of Aβ. However, GM1 is known to be neuroprotective against Aβ-induced toxicity. Here we suggest that the two scenarios are not mutually exclusive but rather complementary, and might depend on the organization of GM1 in membranes. Improving our understanding of the molecular details behind the role of gangliosides in neurodegenerative amyloidoses might help in developing disease-modifying treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Cebecauer
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v.v.i., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Hof
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v.v.i., Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Mariana Amaro
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v.v.i., Prague, Czech Republic.
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Amini Z, Fatemi MH, Rauk A. Molecular dynamics studies of a β-sheet blocking peptide with the full-length amyloid beta peptide of Alzheimer’s disease. CAN J CHEM 2016. [DOI: 10.1139/cjc-2016-0267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The region encompassing residues 13–23 of the amyloid beta peptide (Aβ(13–23)) of Alzheimer’s disease is the self-recognition site that initiates toxic oligomerization and fibrillization. A number of pseudopeptides have been designed to bind to Aβ(13–23) and been computationally shown to do so with high affinity. More interactions are available in full-length Aβ than are available in the shorter peptide. We describe herein a study by molecular dynamics (MD) of nine distinct complexes formed by one such pseudopeptide, SGA1, with full-length beta amyloid, Aβ(1–42). The relative stabilities of the Aβ–SGA1 complexes were estimated by a combination of MD and ab initio methods. The most stable complex, designated AB1, was found to be one in which SGA1 is bound to the self-recognition site of Aβ(1–42) in an antiparallel β-sheet fashion. Another complex, designated AB3, also involved SGA1 binding to the self-recognition region of Aβ(1–42), albeit with lower affinity. In both AB1 and AB3, SGA1 formed antiparallel β-sheets but to opposite edges of Aβ. A complex, AB4, with similar stability to AB3, was found with a parallel β-sheet in the self-recognition site. A fourth complex, AB7, also with similar stability, formed a parallel β-sheet in the hydrophobic central region of Aβ. In all cases, complexation of SGA1 induced extensive β-sheet structure in Aβ(1–42).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohreh Amini
- Chemometrics Laboratory, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Mazandaran 47416-95447, Iran
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Mohammad Hossein Fatemi
- Chemometrics Laboratory, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Mazandaran 47416-95447, Iran
| | - Arvi Rauk
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
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8
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Amaro M, Šachl R, Aydogan G, Mikhalyov II, Vácha R, Hof M. GM1 Ganglioside Inhibits β-Amyloid Oligomerization Induced by Sphingomyelin. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:9411-5. [PMID: 27295499 PMCID: PMC5089616 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201603178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
β-Amyloid (Aβ) oligomers are neurotoxic and implicated in Alzheimer's disease. Neuronal plasma membranes may mediate formation of Aβ oligomers in vivo. Membrane components sphingomyelin and GM1 have been shown to promote aggregation of Aβ; however, these studies were performed under extreme, non-physiological conditions. We demonstrate that physiological levels of GM1 , organized in nanodomains do not seed oligomerization of Aβ40 monomers. We show that sphingomyelin triggers oligomerization of Aβ40 and that GM1 is counteractive thus preventing oligomerization. We propose a molecular explanation that is supported by all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. The preventive role of GM1 in the oligomerization of Aβ40 suggests that decreasing levels of GM1 in the brain, for example, due to aging, could reduce protection against Aβ oligomerization and contribute to the onset of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Amaro
- J. Heyrovský Inst. Physical Chemistry of the A.S.C.R. v.v.i., Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Radek Šachl
- J. Heyrovský Inst. Physical Chemistry of the A.S.C.R. v.v.i., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Gokcan Aydogan
- J. Heyrovský Inst. Physical Chemistry of the A.S.C.R. v.v.i., Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ilya I Mikhalyov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Inst. Bioorganic Chemistry of the R.A.S., Moscow, GSP-7, Russian Fed
| | - Robert Vácha
- Faculty of Science and CEITEC, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Hof
- J. Heyrovský Inst. Physical Chemistry of the A.S.C.R. v.v.i., Prague, Czech Republic.
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9
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Amaro M, Šachl R, Aydogan G, Mikhalyov II, Vácha R, Hof M. GM
1
‐Gangliosid hemmt die β‐Amyloid‐Oligomerisation, während Sphingomyelin diese initiiert. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201603178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Amaro
- J. Heyrovský Inst. Physical Chemistry of the A.S.C.R. v.v.i. Prag Tschechien
| | - Radek Šachl
- J. Heyrovský Inst. Physical Chemistry of the A.S.C.R. v.v.i. Prag Tschechien
| | - Gokcan Aydogan
- J. Heyrovský Inst. Physical Chemistry of the A.S.C.R. v.v.i. Prag Tschechien
| | - Ilya I. Mikhalyov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Inst. Bioorganic Chemistry of the R.A.S. Moskau GSP-7 Russland
| | - Robert Vácha
- Faculty of Science and CEITECMasaryk University Brno Tschechien
| | - Martin Hof
- J. Heyrovský Inst. Physical Chemistry of the A.S.C.R. v.v.i. Prag Tschechien
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10
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Nasica-Labouze J, Nguyen PH, Sterpone F, Berthoumieu O, Buchete NV, Coté S, De Simone A, Doig AJ, Faller P, Garcia A, Laio A, Li MS, Melchionna S, Mousseau N, Mu Y, Paravastu A, Pasquali S, Rosenman DJ, Strodel B, Tarus B, Viles JH, Zhang T, Wang C, Derreumaux P. Amyloid β Protein and Alzheimer's Disease: When Computer Simulations Complement Experimental Studies. Chem Rev 2015; 115:3518-63. [PMID: 25789869 DOI: 10.1021/cr500638n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 474] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Nasica-Labouze
- †Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (IBPC), UPR9080 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Phuong H Nguyen
- †Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (IBPC), UPR9080 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Fabio Sterpone
- †Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (IBPC), UPR9080 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Olivia Berthoumieu
- ‡LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Université Paul Sabatier (UPS), Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse (INPT), 205 route de Narbonne, BP 44099, Toulouse F-31077 Cedex 4, France
| | | | - Sébastien Coté
- ∥Département de Physique and Groupe de recherche sur les protéines membranaires (GEPROM), Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec H3C 3T5, Canada
| | - Alfonso De Simone
- ⊥Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J Doig
- #Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester, 131 Princess Street, Manchester M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Faller
- ‡LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Université Paul Sabatier (UPS), Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse (INPT), 205 route de Narbonne, BP 44099, Toulouse F-31077 Cedex 4, France
| | | | - Alessandro Laio
- ○The International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Mai Suan Li
- ◆Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland.,¶Institute for Computational Science and Technology, SBI Building, Quang Trung Software City, Tan Chanh Hiep Ward, District 12, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Simone Melchionna
- ⬠Instituto Processi Chimico-Fisici, CNR-IPCF, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 00185 Roma, Italy
| | | | - Yuguang Mu
- ▲School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551 Singapore
| | - Anant Paravastu
- ⊕National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, 1800 East Paul Dirac Drive, Tallahassee, Florida 32310, United States
| | - Samuela Pasquali
- †Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (IBPC), UPR9080 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | | | - Birgit Strodel
- △Institute of Complex Systems: Structural Biochemistry (ICS-6), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Bogdan Tarus
- †Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (IBPC), UPR9080 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - John H Viles
- ▼School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, United Kingdom
| | - Tong Zhang
- †Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (IBPC), UPR9080 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France.,▲School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551 Singapore
| | | | - Philippe Derreumaux
- †Laboratoire de Biochimie Théorique, Institut de Biologie Physico-Chimique (IBPC), UPR9080 CNRS, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 13 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France.,□Institut Universitaire de France, 75005 Paris, France
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