Structural and numerical chromosome aberration inducers in liver micronucleus test in rats with partial hepatectomy

Risk assessment of N-nitrosamines in food

EFSA was asked for a scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of N-nitrosamines (N-NAs) in food. The risk assessment was confined to those 10 carcinogenic N-NAs occurring in food (TCNAs), i.e. NDMA, NMEA, NDEA, NDPA, NDBA, NMA, NSAR, NMOR, NPIP and NPYR. N-NAs are genotoxic and induce liver tumours in rodents. The in vivo data available to derive potency factors are limited, and therefore, equal potency of TCNAs was assumed. The lower confidence limit of the benchmark dose at 10% (BMDL10) was 10 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day, derived from the incidence of rat liver tumours (benign and malignant) induced by NDEA and used in a margin of exposure (MOE) approach. Analytical results on the occurrence of N-NAs were extracted from the EFSA occurrence database (n = 2,817) and the literature (n = 4,003). Occurrence data were available for five food categories across TCNAs. Dietary exposure was assessed for two scenarios, excluding (scenario 1) and including (scenario 2) cooked unprocessed meat and fish. TCNAs exposure ranged from 0 to 208.9 ng/kg bw per day across surveys, age groups and scenarios. 'Meat and meat products' is the main food category contributing to TCNA exposure. MOEs ranged from 3,337 to 48 at the P95 exposure excluding some infant surveys with P95 exposure equal to zero. Two major uncertainties were (i) the high number of left censored data and (ii) the lack of data on important food categories. The CONTAM Panel concluded that the MOE for TCNAs at the P95 exposure is highly likely (98-100% certain) to be less than 10,000 for all age groups, which raises a health concern.

Genetic toxicity assessment using liver cell models: past, present, and future

Genotoxic compounds may be detoxified to non-genotoxic metabolites while many pro-carcinogens require metabolic activation to exert their genotoxicity in vivo. Standard genotoxicity assays were developed and utilized for risk assessment for over 40 years. Most of these assays are conducted in metabolically incompetent rodent or human cell lines. Deficient in normal metabolism and relying on exogenous metabolic activation systems, the current in vitro genotoxicity assays often have yielded high false positive rates, which trigger unnecessary and costly in vivo studies. Metabolically active cells such as hepatocytes have been recognized as a promising cell model in predicting genotoxicity of carcinogens in vivo. In recent years, significant advances in tissue culture and biological technologies provided new opportunities for using hepatocytes in genetic toxicology. This review encompasses published studies (both in vitro and in vivo) using hepatocytes for genotoxicity assessment. Findings from both standard and newly developed genotoxicity assays are summarized. Various liver cell models used for genotoxicity assessment are described, including the potential application of advanced liver cell models such as 3D spheroids, organoids, and engineered hepatocytes. An integrated strategy, that includes the use of human-based cells with enhanced biological relevance and throughput, and applying the quantitative analysis of data, may provide an approach for future genotoxicity risk assessment.

In vivo genotoxicity of 1,4-dioxane evaluated by liver and bone marrow micronucleus tests and Pig-a assay in rats

1,4-Dioxane, used widely as a solvent in the manufacture of chemicals and as a laboratory reagent, induced liver adenomas and carcinomas in mice and rats, and nasal tumors in rats in several long-term studies. 1,4-Dioxane has been reported to be non-genotoxic in vitro, and there is no clear conclusion concerning its in vivo genotoxicity in rodents. In the present study, we investigated the ability of 1,4-dioxane to induce micronuclei in the liver and bone marrow of rats. For the liver micronucleus test, we performed the juvenile animal method and two methods using partial hepatectomy (PH), dosing before PH or dosing after PH. We also evaluated the in vivo mutagenicity of 1,4-dioxane by Pig-a gene mutation assay using rat peripheral blood. As a result, all methods of liver micronucleus test showed an increase in the frequency of micronucleated hepatocytes by 1,4-dioxane. The dosing before PH, a suitable method for detecting structural chromosome aberration inducers, showed the clearest response for micronucleated hepatocytes induction among the three methods. This finding is consistent with a previous report that 1,4-dioxane induces mainly chromosome breakage in the liver. Negative results were obtained in the bone marrow micronucleus test and Pig-a gene mutation assay in our study. These results suggested that 1,4-dioxane is clastogenic in the liver but not genotoxic in the bone marrow of rats.

Repeated-dose liver micronucleus test of 4,4'-methylenedianiline using young adult rats

Liver micronucleus (MN) tests using partial hepatectomized rats or juvenile rats have been shown to be useful for the detection of hepatic carcinogens. Moreover, Narumi et al. established the repeated-dose liver MN test using young adult rats for integration into general toxicity. In the present study, in order to examine the usefulness of the repeated-dose liver MN test, we investigated MN induction with a 14 or 28 day treatment protocol using young adult rats treated with 4,4′-methylenedianiline (MDA), a known hepatic carcinogen. MDA dose-dependently induced micronuclei in hepatocytes in 14- and 28-day repeated-dose tests. However, although statistically significant increases in micronuclei were observed in bone marrow cells at two dose levels in the 14-day study, there was no dose response and no increases in micronuclei in the 28-day study. These results indicate that the evaluation of genotoxic effects using hepatocytes is effective in cases where chromosomal aberrations are not clearly detectable in bone marrow cells. Moreover, the repeated-dose liver MN test allows evaluation at a dose below the maximum tolerable dose, which is required for the conventional MN test because micronucleated hepatocytes accumulate. The repeated-dose liver MN test employed in the present study can be integrated into the spectrum of general toxicity tests without further procedural modifications.

Assessment of a twice dosing regimen both before and after partial hepatectomy in the rat liver micronucleus test

The liver micronucleus test is an important method to detect in vivo genotoxicants, especially those that require metabolic activation for their genotoxicity. We have already reported that structural or numerical chromosome aberration inducers have to be given before or after partial hepatectomy, respectively, to detect their genotoxicity in the liver of rats. In the present study, we assessed a twice dosing regimen, in which the genotoxicant is dosed both before and after partial hepatectomy, using the four chromosome aberration inducers used in the previous study. Two structural chromosome aberration inducers (diethylnitrosamine and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine) and two numerical chromosome aberration inducers (colchicine and carbendazim) were used. The genotoxicant was administered to 8-week old male F344 rats one day before and again one day after the partial hepatectomy and hepatocytes were isolated 3 days after second dosing (4 days after the partial hepatectomy). As a result, all genotoxicants (structural or numerical chromosome aberration inducers) caused a dose-dependent statistically significant increase in the incidence of micronucleated hepatocytes when given both before and after partial hepatectomy. No marked difference was observed in general toxicity, relative liver weight and cell classification between single dosing regimens and twice dosing regimen of the genotoxicants. These results confirm that the twice dosing regimen, in which the test compound is dosed both before and after partial hepatectomy, can detect in vivo induction of micronucleated hepatocytes by structural or numerical chromosome aberration inducers qualitatively similar to their appropriate regimen in which the test compound is administered either before or after partial hepatectomy.

Recommended protocols for the liver micronucleus test: Report of the IWGT working group

At the 6th International Workshop on Genotoxicity Testing (IWGT), the liver micronucleus test working group discussed practical aspects of the in vivo rodent liver micronucleus test (LMNT). The group members focused on the three methodologies currently used, i.e., a partial hepatectomy (PH) method, a juvenile/young rat (JR) method, and a repeated-dose (RD) method in adult rodents. Since the liver is the main organ that metabolizes chemicals, the LMNT is expected to detect clastogens, especially those that need metabolic activation in the liver, and aneugens. Based on current data the three methods seem to have a high sensitivity and specificity, but more data, especially on non-genotoxic but toxic substances, would be needed to fully evaluate the test performance. The three methods can be combined with the micronucleus test (MNT) using bone marrow (BM) and/or peripheral blood (PB). The ability of the PH method to detect both clastogens and aneugens has already been established, but the methodology is technically challenging. The JR method is relatively straightforward, but animal metabolism might not be fully comparable to adult animals, and data on aneugens are limited. These two methods also have the advantage of a short testing period. The RD method is also straightforward and can be integrated into repeated-dose (e.g. 2 or 4 weeks) toxicity studies, but again data on aneugens are limited. The working group concluded that the LMNT could be used as a second in vivo test when a relevant positive result in in vitro mammalian cell genotoxicity tests is noted (especially under the condition of metabolic activation), and a negative result is observed in the in vivo BM/PB-MNT. The group members discussed LMNT protocols and reached consensus about many aspects of test procedures. However, data gaps as mentioned above remain, and further data are needed to fully establish the LMNT protocol.