Albumin based versatile multifunctional nanocarriers for cancer therapy: Fabrication, surface modification, multimodal therapeutics and imaging approaches

Unveiling innovative therapeutic strategies and future trajectories on stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems for targeted treatment of breast carcinoma

This comprehensive review delineates the latest advancements in stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems engineered for the targeted treatment of breast carcinoma. The manuscript commences by introducing mammary carcinoma and the current therapeutic methodologies, underscoring the urgency for innovative therapeutic strategies. Subsequently, it elucidates the logic behind the employment of stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems, which promise targeted drug administration and the minimization of adverse reactions. The review proffers an in-depth analysis of diverse types of stimuli-responsive systems, including thermoresponsive, pH-responsive, and enzyme-responsive nanocarriers. The paramount importance of material choice, biocompatibility, and drug loading strategies in the design of these systems is accentuated. The review explores characterization methodologies for stimuli-responsive nanocarriers and probes preclinical evaluations of their efficacy, toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and biodistribution in mammary carcinoma models. Clinical applications of stimuli-responsive systems, ongoing clinical trials, the potential of combination therapies, and the utility of multifunctional nanocarriers for the co-delivery of assorted drugs and therapies are also discussed. The manuscript addresses the persistent challenge of drug resistance in mammary carcinoma and the potential of stimuli-responsive systems in surmounting it. Regulatory and safety considerations, including FDA guidelines and biocompatibility assessments, are outlined. The review concludes by spotlighting future trajectories and emergent technologies in stimuli-responsive drug delivery, focusing on pioneering approaches, advancements in nanotechnology, and personalized medicine considerations. This review aims to serve as a valuable compendium for researchers and clinicians interested in the development of efficacious and safe stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems for the treatment of breast carcinoma.

Development of Human Serum Albumin Fluorescent Probes in Detection, Imaging, and Disease Therapy

Human serum albumin (HSA) acts as a repository and transporter of substances in the blood. An abnormal concentration may indicate the occurrence of liver- and kidney-related diseases, which has attracted people to investigate the precise quantification of HSA in body fluids. Fluorescent probes can combine with HSA covalently or noncovalently to quantify HSA in urine and plasma. Moreover, probes combined with HSA can improve its photophysical properties; probe-HSA has been applied in real-time monitoring and photothermal and photodynamic therapy in vivo. This Review will introduce fluorescent probes for quantitative HSA according to the three reaction mechanisms of spatial structure, enzymatic reaction, and self-assembly and systematically introduce the application of probes combined with HSA in disease imaging and phototherapy. It will help develop multifunctional applications for HSA probes and provide assistance in the early diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

Factors Affecting the Synthesis of Bovine Serum Albumin Nanoparticles Using the Desolvation Method

Currently, protein-based nanoparticles are in high demand as drug delivery systems due to their exceptional qualities, including nontoxicity, nonantigenicity, and biodegradability. Other qualities include high nutritional value, abundance of renewable resources, excellent drug binding capacity, greater stability during storage and in vivo, as well as ease of upgrading during manufacture. Examples of protein suitable for this purpose include ovalbumin (OVA) derived from egg white, human serum albumin (HSA), and bovine serum albumin (BSA). To create albumin nanoparticles, six different processes have been investigated in depth and are frequently used in drug delivery systems. These included desolvation, thermal gelation, emulsification, NAB technology, self-assembly, and nanospray drying. Several experimental conditions in the synthesis of albumin nanoparticles can affect the physicochemical characterization. Therefore, this study aimed to provide an overview of various experimental conditions capable of affecting the physicochemical characteristics of BSA nanoparticles formed using the desolvation method. By considering the variation in optimal experimental conditions, a delivery system of BSA nanoparticles with the best physicochemical characterization results could be developed.

Insights into the binding of half-sandwich phosphino Ir(III) and Ru(II) complexes to deoxyribonucleic acid, albumin and apo-transferrin: Experimental and theoretical investigation

A group of cytotoxic half-sandwich iridium(III) (Ir(η5-Cp*)Cl2PPh2CH2OH (IrPOH)), (Ir(η5-Cp*)Cl2P(p-OCH3Ph)2CH2OH (IrMPOH)), and ruthenium(II) (Ru(η6-p-cymene)Cl2PPh2CH2OH (RuPOH), Ru(η6-p-cymene)Cl2P(p-OCH3Ph)2CH2OH (RuMPOH)) complexes with phosphine ligands exhibit the ability to (i) slow hydrolysis which is reversed by adding a high NaCl concentration; (ii) oxidation of NADH to NAD+; (iii) induction of cytotoxicity towards various cancer cell lines. Furthermore, we found that RuPOH and RuMPOH selectively inhibit the proliferation of skin cancer cells (WM266-4) while Ir(III) complexes were found to be moderate against prostate cancer cells (DU-145). Herein, to elucidate the cytotoxic effects, we investigated the interaction of these complexes with DNA and serum proteins by gel electrophoresis, fluorescence spectroscopy, and molecular docking studies. Fluorescence spectroscopic data (calf thymus DNA: CT-DNA titration), together with analysis of DNA fragmentation (gel electrophoresis) and molecular docking provided evidence for the multimodal interaction of Ir(III) and Ru(III) complexes with DNA with predominance of intercalation and minor groove binding. All examined complexes caused single-stranded cleavage of the sugar-phosphate backbone of plasmid DNA. The affinity of the complexes for apo-transferrin (apo-Tf) and human serum albumin (HSA) was evaluated by fluorescence emission spectroscopy to calculate the binding constants which suggested a tight and reversible binding. Moreover, ruthenium complexes can mimic the binding of iron compounds to specific biomolecules such as albumin and transferrin better than iridium complexes. In silico study indicate that complexes mostly bind to (i) apo-Tf with a preference for a single binding site and/or (ii) to dock within all the four predicted binding sites of HSA with the predominance of site I which include tryptophan residues of HSA. This class of ruthenium(II) and iridium(III) complexes has unusual features worthy of further exploration in the design of novel anticancer drugs.

Human Serum Albumin Based Nanodrug Delivery Systems: Recent Advances and Future Perspective

With the success of several clinical trials of products based on human serum albumin (HSA) and the rapid development of nanotechnology, HSA-based nanodrug delivery systems (HBNDSs) have received extensive attention in the field of nanomedicine. However, there is still a lack of comprehensive reviews exploring the broader scope of HBNDSs in biomedical applications beyond cancer therapy. To address this gap, this review takes a systematic approach. Firstly, it focuses on the crystal structure and the potential binding sites of HSA. Additionally, it provides a comprehensive summary of recent progresses in the field of HBNDSs for various biomedical applications over the past five years, categorized according to the type of therapeutic drugs loaded onto HSA. These categories include small-molecule drugs, inorganic materials and bioactive ingredients. Finally, the review summarizes the characteristics and current application status of HBNDSs in drug delivery, and also discusses the challenges that need to be addressed for the clinical transformation of HSA formulations and offers future perspectives in this field.

Prognostic Value of Post-Operative C-Reactive Protein-Based Inflammatory Biomarkers in Colorectal Cancer Patients: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Post-operative inflammation in cancer patients can be modulated by drugs and diets, but evidence on its prognostic role, which would be crucial for personalized treatment and surveillance schemes, remains rather limited. We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyse studies on the prognostic value of post-operative C-reactive protein (CRP)-based inflammatory biomarkers among patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) (PROSPERO#: CRD42022293832). PubMed, Web of Science and Cochrane databases were searched until February 2023. Studies reporting associations between post-operative CRP, Glasgow Prognostic Score (GPS) or modified Glasgow Prognostic Score (mGPS) with overall survival (OS), CRC-specific survival (CSS) and recurrence-free survival (RFS) were included. Hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the predictor-outcome associations were pooled using R-software, version 4.2. Sixteen studies (n = 6079) were included in the meta-analyses. Elevated post-operative CRP was a predictor of poor OS, CSS and RFS compared with low CRP levels [HR (95% CI): 1.72 (1.32-2.25); 1.63 (1.30-2.05); 2.23 (1.44-3.47), respectively]. A unit increase in post-operative GPS predicted poor OS [HR (95% Cl): 1.31 (1.14-1.51)]. Moreover, a unit increase in post-operative mGPS was associated with poor OS and CSS [HR (95% Cl): 1.93 (1.37-2.72); 3.16 (1.48-6.76), respectively]. Post-operative CRP-based inflammatory biomarkers have a significant prognostic role for patients with CRC. Prognostic value of these easy-to-obtain routine measurements thereby seems to outperform most of the much more complex blood- or tissue-based predictors in the current focus of multi-omics-based research. Future studies should validate our findings, establish optimal time for biomarker assessment and determine clinically useful cut-off values of these biomarkers for post-operative risk-stratification and treatment-response monitoring.

Novel Bovine Serum Albumin-Decorated–Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Able to Modulate Apoptosis and Cell-Cycle Response in Ovarian, Breast, and Colon Tumoral Cells

A novel nanoscale approach was developed for the improved cellular internalization of hybrid bovine serum albumin–lipid nanocarriers loaded with piperine (NLC-Pip–BSA) in different tumor cells. The effect of the BSA-targeted–NLC-Pip and untargeted-NLC-Pip on the viability, proliferation, and levels of cell-cycle damage and apoptosis in the colon (LoVo), ovarian (SKOV3) and breast (MCF7) adenocarcinoma cell lines was comparatively discussed. NLCs were characterized concerning particle size, morphology, zeta potential, phytochemical encapsulation efficiency, ATR-FTIR, and fluorescence spectroscopy. The results showed that NLC-Pip–BSA showed a mean size below 140 nm, a zeta potential of −60 mV, and an entrapment efficiency of 81.94% for NLC-Pip and 80.45% for NLC-Pip–BSA. Fluorescence spectroscopy confirmed the coating of the NLC with the albumin. By MTS and RTCA assays, NLC-Pip–BSA showed a more pronounced response against the LoVo colon cell line and MCF-7 breast tumor cell lines than against the ovarian SKOV-3 cell line. Flow cytometry assay demonstrated that the targeted NLC-Pip had more cytotoxicity and improved apoptosis than the untargeted ones in MCF-7 tumor cells (p < 0.05). NLC-Pip caused a significant increase in MCF-7 breast tumor cell apoptosis of ~8X, while NLC-Pip–BSA has shown an 11-fold increase in apoptosis.

Superparamagnetic Iron-Oxide Nanoparticles Synthesized via Green Chemistry for the Potential Treatment of Breast Cancer

In the emerging field of nanomedicine, nanoparticles have been widely considered as drug carriers and are now used in various clinically approved products. Therefore, in this study, we synthesized superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) via green chemistry, and the SPIONs were further coated with tamoxifen-conjugated bovine serum albumin (BSA-SPIONs-TMX). The BSA-SPIONs-TMX were within the nanometric hydrodynamic size (117 ± 4 nm), with a small poly dispersity index (0.28 ± 0.02) and zeta potential of -30.2 ± 0.09 mV. FTIR, DSC, X-RD, and elemental analysis confirmed that BSA-SPIONs-TMX were successfully prepared. The saturation magnetization (M_s) of BSA-SPIONs-TMX was found to be ~8.31 emu/g, indicating that BSA-SPIONs-TMX possess superparamagnetic properties for theragnostic applications. In addition, BSA-SPIONs-TMX were efficiently internalized into breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and T47D) and were effective in reducing cell proliferation of breast cancer cells, with IC₅₀ values of 4.97 ± 0.42 μM and 6.29 ± 0.21 μM in MCF-7 and T47D cells, respectively. Furthermore, an acute toxicity study on rats confirmed that these BSA-SPIONs-TMX are safe for use in drug delivery systems. In conclusion, green synthesized superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles have the potential to be used as drug delivery carriers and may also have diagnostic applications.

Self-Assembly of Precisely Fluorinated Albumin for Dual Imaging-Guided Synergistic Chemo-Photothermal-Photodynamic Cancer Therapy

Although albumin has been extensively used in nanomedicine, it is still challenging to fluorinate albumin into fluorine-19 magnetic resonance imaging (¹⁹F MRI)-traceable theranostics because existing strategies lead to severe ¹⁹F signal splitting, line broadening, and low ¹⁹F MRI sensitivity. To this end, 34-cysteine-selectively fluorinated bovine serum albumins (BSAs) with a sharp singlet ¹⁹F peak have been developed as ¹⁹F MRI-sensitive and self-assembled frameworks for cancer theranostics. It was found that fluorinated albumin with a non-binding fluorocarbon and a long linker is crucial for avoiding ¹⁹F signal splitting and line broadening. With the fluorinated BSAs, paclitaxel (PTX) and IR-780 were self-assembled into stable, monodisperse, and multifunctional nanoparticles in a framework-promoted self-emulsion way. The high tumor accumulation, efficient cancer cell uptake, and laser-triggered PTX sharp release of the BSA nanoparticles enabled ¹⁹F MRI-near infrared fluorescence imaging (NIR FLI)-guided synergistic chemotherapy (Chemo), photothermal and photodynamic therapy of xenograft MCF-7 cancer with a high therapeutical index in mice. This study developed a rational synthesis of ¹⁹F MRI-sensitive albumin and a framework-promoted self-emulsion of multifunctional BSA nanoparticles, which would promote the development of protein-based high-performance biomaterials for imaging, diagnosis, therapy, and beyond.

Surface-engineered nanoparticles in cancer immune response and immunotherapy: Current status and future prospects

Cancer immunotherapy is a therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis by intervening in the immune response process. Strategies applied to cancer immunotherapy mainly include blocking immune checkpoints, adoptive transfer of engineered immune cells, cytokine therapy, cancer vaccines, and oncolytic virus infection. However, many factors, such as off-target side effects, immunosuppressive cell infiltration and/or upregulation of immune checkpoint expression, cancer cell heterogeneity, and lack of antigen presentation, affect the therapeutic effect of immunotherapy on cancer. To improve the efficacy of targeted immunotherapy and reduce off-target effects, over the past two decades, nanoparticle delivery platforms have been increasingly used in tumor immunotherapy. However, nanoparticles are still subject to biological barriers and biodistribution challenges, which limit their overall clinical potential. This has prompted a series of engineered nanoparticles to overcome specific obstacles and transfer the accumulation of payloads to tumor-infiltrating immune cells. In recent years, new techniques and chemical methods have been employed to modify or functionalize the surfaces of nanoparticles. This review discusses the recent progress of surface-engineered nanoparticles in inducing tumor immune responses and immunotherapy, as well as future directions for the development of next-generation nanomedicines.

Hybrid (Bovine Serum Albumin)/Poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone-co-acrylic acid)-Shelled Microbubbles as Advanced Ultrasound Contrast Agents

Microbubbles are routinely used ultrasound contrast agents in the clinic. While a soft protein shell is commercially preferable for imaging purposes, a rigid polymer shell demonstrates prolonged agent stability. Hence, combining polymers and proteins in one shell composition can advance microbubble properties. We formulated the hybrid "protein-copolymer" microbubble shell with a complex of bovine serum albumin and an amphiphilic copolymer of N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone and acrylic acid. The resulting microbubbles demonstrated advanced physicochemical and acoustic properties, preserving in vitro biocompatibility. Adjusting the mass ratio between protein and copolymer allowed fine tuning of the microbubble properties of concentration (by two orders, up to 10¹⁰ MBs/mL), mean size (from 0.8 to 5 μm), and shell thickness (from 28 to 50 nm). In addition, the minimum air-liquid surface tension for the "protein-copolymer" solution enabled the highest bubble concentration. At the same time, a higher copolymer amount in the bubble shell increased the bubble size and tuned duration and intensity of the contrast during an ultrasound procedure. Demonstrated results exemplify the potential of the hybrid "protein-polymer" microbubble shell, allowing tailoring of microbubble properties for image-guided applications, combining advances of each material involved in the formulation.

Benefits and limitations of nanomedicine treatment of brain cancers and age-dependent neurodegenerative disorders

The treatment of central nervous system (CNS) malignancies, including brain cancers, is limited by a number of obstructions, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the heterogeneity and high invasiveness of tumors, the inaccessibility of tissues for early diagnosis and effective surgery, and anti-cancer drug resistance. Therapies employing nanomedicine have been shown to facilitate drug penetration across the BBB and maintain biodistribution and accumulation of therapeutic agents at the desired target site. The application of lipid-, polymer-, or metal-based nanocarriers represents an advanced drug delivery system for a growing group of anti-cancer chemicals. The nanocarrier surface is designed to contain an active ligand (cancer cell marker or antibody)-binding structure which can be modified to target specific cancer cells. Glioblastoma, ependymoma, neuroblastoma, medulloblastoma, and primary CNS lymphomas were recently targeted by easily absorbed nanocarriers. The metal- (such as transferrin drug-loaded systems), polymer- (nanocapsules and nanospheres), or lipid- (such as sulfatide-containing nanoliposomes)-based nano-vehicles were loaded with apoptosis- and/or ferroptosis-stimulating agents and demonstrated promising anti-cancer effects. This review aims to discuss effective nanomedicine approaches designed to overcome the current limitations in the therapy of brain cancers and age-dependent neurodegenerative disorders. To accent current obstacles for successful CNS-based cancer therapy, we discuss nanomedicine perspectives and limitations of nanodrug use associated with the specificity of nervous tissue characteristics and the effects nanocarriers have on cognition.

Folic acid anchored urchin-like raloxifene nanoparticles for receptor targeting in breast cancer: Synthesis, optimisation and in vitro biological evaluation

In this study, raloxifene hydrochloride (RLX) was loaded into bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (RLX-BSA-NPs) and further surface modified with folic acid (FA-RLX-BSA-NPs) for targeted breast cancer therapy. In statistical optimization of RLX-BSA-NPs, albumin and crosslinker concentration significantly affected particle size and entrapment efficiency of RLX-BSA-NPs. Structural characterizations confirmed that the formation of FA-RLX-BSA-NPs and SEM microphotographs resembled the urchin-like spiky feature. A sustained in vitro release pattern was observed till 120 h from FA-RLX-BSA-NPs in phosphate buffer. The MTT assay revealed maximum cell inhibition by FA-RLX-BSA-NPs against MCF-7 cells and MDA MB-231 cells at lower IC₅₀ values (0.5 µg/ml and 0.7 µg/ml) compared to RLX and RLX-BSA-NPs. The cell cycle analysis revealed that FA-RLX-BSA-NPs induced apoptosis of MCF-7 cells in the sub-G1 phase via folate receptor-α mediated endocytic uptake. Hence, the raloxifene nanoparticles stance as a potential nanocarrier for targeted therapy in breast cancer.

Perspectives of using microRNA-loaded nanocarriers for epigenetic reprogramming of drug resistant colorectal cancers

Epigenetic regulation by microRNAs (miRs) demonstrated a promising therapeutic potential of these molecules to regulate genetic activity in different cancers, including colorectal cancers (CRCs). The RNA-based therapy does not change genetic codes in tumor cells but can silence oncogenes and/or reactivate inhibited tumor suppressor genes. In many cancers, specific miRs were shown to promote or stop tumor progression. Among confirmed and powerful epigenetic regulators of colon carcinogenesis and development of resistance are onco-miRs, which include let-7, miR-21, miR-22, miR-23a, miR-27a, miR-34, miR-92, miR-96, miR-125b, miR-135b, miR-182, miR-200c, miR-203, miR-221, miR-421, miR-451, and others. Moreover, various tumor-suppressor miRs (miR-15b-5b, miR-18a, miR-20b, miR-22, miR-96, miR-139-5p, miR-145, miR-149, miR-197, miR-199b, miR-203, miR-214, miR-218, miR-320, miR-375-3p, miR-409-3p, miR-450b-5p, miR-494, miR-577, miR-874, and others) were found silenced in drug-resistant CRCs. Re-expression of tumor suppressor miR is complicated by the chemical nature of miRs that are not long-lasting compounds and require protection from the enzymatic degradation. Several recent studies explored application of miRs using nanocarrier complexes. This study critically describes the most successfully tested nanoparticle complexes used for intracellular delivery of nuclear acids and miRs, including micelles, liposomes, inorganic and polymeric NPs, dendrimers, and aptamers. Nanocarriers shield incorporated miRs and improve the agent stability in circulation. Attachment of antibodies and/or specific peptide or ligands facilitates cell-targeted miR delivery. Addressing in vivo challenges, a broad spectrum of non-toxic materials has been tested and indicated reliable advantages of lipid-based (lipoplexes) and polymer-based liposomes. Recent cutting-edge developments indicated that lipid-based complexes with multiple cargo, including several miRs, are the most effective approach to eradicate drug-resistant tumors. Focusing on CRC-specific miRs, this review provides a guidance and insights towards the most promising direction to achieve dramatic reduction in tumor growth and metastasis using miR-nanocarrier complexes.

Serum albumin and nucleic acids biodistribution: from molecular aspects to biotechnological applications

Serum albumin (SA) is the most abundant protein in plasma and represents the main carrier of endogenous and exogenous compounds. Several evidence supports the notion that SA binds single and double stranded deoxy- and ribonucleotides at two sites, with values of the dissociation equilibrium constant (i.e., K_d ) ranging from micromolar to nanomolar values. This can be relevant from a physiological and pathological point of view as in human plasma circulate cell-free nucleic acids (cfNAs), which are single and double stranded NAs released by different tissues via apoptosis, necrosis, and secretions. Albeit SA shows low hydrolytic reactivity toward DNA and RNA, the high plasma concentration of this protein and the occurrence of several SA receptors may be pivotal for sequestering and hydrolyzing cfNAs. Therefore, pathological conditions like cancer, characterized by altered levels of human SA or by altered SA post-translational modifications, may influence cfNAs distribution and metabolism. Besides, the stability, solubility, biocompatibility, and low immunogenicity make SA a golden share for biotechnological applications related to the delivery of therapeutic NAs (TNAs). Indeed, pre-clinical studies report the therapeutic potential of SA:TNAs complexes in precision cancer therapy. Here, the molecular and biotechnological implications of SA:NAs interaction are discussed, highlighting new perspectives into SA plasmatic functions. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Targeted delivery of albumin nanoparticles for breast cancer: A review

Breast cancer has been identified as one of the most common cancers diagnosed in women. Various nanotechnology platforms offering unique features are considered in breast cancer treatment. Albumin is a versatile biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic and non-immunogenic protein nanocarrier. These characteristics attracted strong attention to fabricate albumin nanoparticles to deliver chemotherapeutic agents without major adverse effects. Albumin nanoparticles can undergo surface modifications using different ligands promoting tumor-targeted drug delivery. Moreover, multifunctional albumin nanoparticle is an upcoming strategy to attain efficient cancer therapy. This review gives an account of the potential albumin nanoparticles developed for chemotherapeutic drug delivery and its targeted approach for breast cancer. It also covers different multifunctional therapies available using albumin nanoparticles as breast cancer theranostics.

Nanomaterials-based photosensitizers and delivery systems for photodynamic cancer therapy

The increasing cancer morbidity and mortality requires the development of high-efficiency and low-toxicity anticancer approaches. In recent years, photodynamic therapy (PDT) has attracted much attention in cancer therapy due to its non-invasive features and low side effects. Photosensitizer (PS) is one of the key factors of PDT, and its successful delivery largely determines the outcome of PDT. Although a few PS molecules have been approved for clinical use, PDT is still limited by the low stability and poor tumor targeting capacity of PSs. Various nanomaterial systems have shown great potentials in improving PDT, such as metal nanoparticles, graphene-based nanomaterials, liposomes, ROS-sensitive nanocarriers and supramolecular nanomaterials. The small molecular PSs can be loaded in functional nanomaterials to enhance the PS stability and tumor targeted delivery, and some functionalized nanomaterials themselves can be directly used as PSs. Herein, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of PDT, and summarize the recent progress of nanomaterials-based PSs and delivery systems in anticancer PDT. In addition, the concerns of nanomaterials-based PDT including low tumor targeting capacity, limited light penetration, hypoxia and nonspecific protein corona formation are discussed. The possible solutions to these concerns are also discussed.

Serum Albumin for Magnetic Nanoparticles Coating

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have great potential in biochemistry and medical science. In particular, iron oxide nanoparticles have demonstrated a promising effect in various biomedical applications due to their high magnetic properties, large surface area, stability, and easy functionalization. However, colloidal stability, biocompatibility, and potential toxicity of MNPs in physiological environments are crucial for their in vivo application. In this context, many research articles focused on the possible procedures for MNPs coating to improve their physic-chemical and biological properties. This review highlights one viable fabrication strategy of biocompatible iron oxide nanoparticles using human serum albumin (HSA). HSA is mainly a transport protein with many functions in various fundamental processes. As it is one of the most abundant plasma proteins, not a single drug in the blood passes without its strength test. It influences the stability, pharmacokinetics, and biodistribution of different drug-delivery systems by binding or forming its protein corona on the surface. The development of albumin-based drug carriers is gaining increasing importance in the targeted delivery of cancer therapy. Considering this, HSA is a highly potential candidate for nanoparticles coating and theranostics area and can provide biocompatibility, prolonged blood circulation, and possibly resolve the drug-resistance cancer problem.

Hypoxia-Activated Albumin-Binding Exatecan Prodrug for Cancer Therapy

As an effective drug delivery strategy for traditional antitumor drugs, the stimulus-responsive albumin-based prodrugs are getting more and more attention. These prodrugs only release drugs in specific tumor microenvironments, which can prevent premature release of the drug in the circulation. Tumor hypoxia is a fundamental feature of the solid tumor microenvironment. As a hypoxia-activated linker, the 5-position branched linker of 1-methyl-2-nitro-5-hydroxymethylimidazole can be a trigger for albumin-based prodrugs. In this study, we report the synthesis and biological evaluation of the hypoxia-activated albumin-binding prodrug Mal-azo-Exatecan. After intravenous administration, the maleimide on the side chain can rapidly bind to endogenous albumin, enabling the prodrugs to accumulate in tumors, where tumor-associated hypoxia microenvironments trigger the selective release of Exatecan. The 5-position branched linker of 1-methyl-2-nitro-5-hydroxymethylimidazole as a cleavable linker has high plasma stability and does not cause Exatecan release from HSA-azo-Exatecan during circulation in vivo, avoiding systemic side effects caused by Exatecan.

Protein nanoparticles directed cancer imaging and therapy

Cancer has been a serious threat to human health. Among drug delivery carriers, protein nanoparticles are unique because of their mild and environmentally friendly preparation methods. They also inherit desired characteristics from natural proteins, such as biocompatibility and biodegradability. Therefore, they have solved some problems inherent to inorganic nanocarriers such as poor biocompatibility. Also, the surface groups and cavity of protein nanoparticles allow for easy surface modification and drug loading. Besides, protein nanoparticles can be combined with inorganic nanoparticles or contrast agents to form multifunctional theranostic platforms. This review introduces representative protein nanoparticles applicable in cancer theranostics, including virus-like particles, albumin nanoparticles, silk protein nanoparticles, and ferritin nanoparticles. It also describes the common methods for preparing them. It then critically analyzes the use of a variety of protein nanoparticles in improved cancer imaging and therapy.

Prognostic Value of the Systemic Immune-Inflammation Index and Prognostic Nutritional Index in Patients With Medulloblastoma Undergoing Surgical Resection

Background: The progression and metastasis of cancers are associated with systematic immune inflammation and nutritional dysfunction. The systemic immune-inflammation index and prognostic nutritional index (PNI) have shown a prognostic impact in several malignancies. Therefore, our study aimed to evaluate immune inflammation and nutritional index prognostic significance in patients with medulloblastoma (MB).

Methods: We retrospectively analyzed 111 patients with MB between 2001 and 2021 at our institution. The optimal cutoff values for systemic immune-inflammation index (SII), neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR), monocyte/lymphocyte counts ration (MLR), and PNI were evaluated with receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Clinical characteristics and SII, NLR, MLR, and PNI were tested with the Pearson's chi-squared test. The Kaplan–Meier survival curves and the Cox proportional hazards model were used to evaluate the effects of immune inflammation and nutritional index on overall survival (OS).

Results: Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis determined the optimal SII, NLR, MLR, and PNI cutoff values of 2,278, 14.83, 0.219, and 56.5 that significantly interacts with OS and divided the patients into two groups. Comparative survival analysis exhibited that the high-SII cohort had significantly shorter OS (p = 0.0048) than the low-SII cohort. For the univariate analysis, the results revealed that preoperative hydrocephalus (p = 0.01), SII (p = 0.006), albumin–bilirubin score (ALBI) (p = 0.04), and coSII–PNI were predictors of OS. In the multivariate analysis, preoperative hydrocephalus (p < 0.001), ALBI (p = 0.010), SII (p < 0.001), and coSII–PNI as independent prognostic factors were significantly correlated with OS.

Conclusion: The preoperative SII, ALBI, and coSII–PNI serve as robust prognostic biomarkers for patients with MB undergoing surgical resection.

(cRGD)2 peptides modified nanoparticles increase tumor-targeting therapeutic effects by co-delivery of albendazole and iodine-131

Albendazole (ABZ), a clinical antiparasitic drug, has shown potential antitumor effects in various tumors. Herein, we prepared dimeric cRGD [(cRGD)2] modified human serum albumin (HSA) nanosystem to co-delivery of albendazole (ABZ) and iodine-131 (131I) for chemoradiotherapy of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). HSA@ABZ NPs were synthesized by the self-assembly method. 131I-(cRGD)2/HSA@ABZ NPs were fabricated through covalently binding HSA@ABZ NPs with (cRGD)2 peptides, followed by chloramine T direct labeling with 131I. In vitro therapeutic effects on TNBC (MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cells) were determined using MTT assay, crystal violet assay, wound-healing assay and western blotting analysis. In vivo treatment was performed using 4T1-bearing mice, and the tumor-targeting efficacy was assessed by gamma imaging. The distribution of NPs was quantitatively analyzed by detecting the gamma counts in tumor and main organs. The nanoparticles possessed negative charge, moderate size and good polydispersity index. Dual responding to pH and redox, the in vitro release rate of ABZ was more than 80% in 72 h. In vitro, NPs inhibited the proliferation of TNBC cells in a concentration-dependent manner and decreased cell migration. Western blotting analysis showed that the NPs, as well as free ABZ, cell-dependently induced autophagy and apoptosis by restraining or promoting the expression of p-p38 and p-JNK MAPK. In vivo, gamma imaging exhibited an earlier and denser radioactivity accumulation in tumor of 131I-(cRGD)2/HSA@ABZ NPs compared to NPs free of (cRGD)2 conjugating. Furthermore, 131I-(cRGD)2/HSA@ABZ NPs significantly suppressed tumor growth by restraining proliferation and promoting apoptosis in vivo. Our study suggested that the nanoparticles we developed enhanced tumor-targeting of ABZ and increased antitumor effects by combination of chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Recent Advancements in Serum Albumin-Based Nanovehicles Toward Potential Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Recently, drug delivery vehicles based on nanotechnology have significantly attracted the attention of researchers in the field of nanomedicine since they can achieve ideal drug release and biodistribution. Among the various organic or inorganic materials that used to prepare drug delivery vehicles for effective cancer treatment, serum albumin-based nanovehicles have been widely developed and investigated due to their prominent superiorities, including good biocompatibility, high stability, nontoxicity, non-immunogenicity, easy preparation, and functionalization, allowing them to be promising candidates for cancer diagnosis and therapy. This article reviews the recent advances on the applications of serum albumin-based nanovehicles in cancer diagnosis and therapy. We first introduce the essential information of bovine serum albumin (BSA) and human serum albumin (HSA), and discuss their drug loading strategies. We then discuss the different types of serum albumin-based nanovehicles including albumin nanoparticles, surface-functionalized albumin nanoparticles, and albumin nanocomplexes. Moreover, after briefly discussing the application of serum albumin-based nanovehicles used as the nanoprobes in cancer diagnosis, we also describe the serum albumin-based nanovehicle-assisted cancer theranostics, involving gas therapy, chemodynamic therapy (CDT), phototherapy (PTT/PDT), sonodynamic therapy (SDT), and other therapies as well as cancer imaging. Numerous studies cited in our review show that serum albumin-based nanovehicles possess a great potential in cancer diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

Chondroitin sulfate-mediated albumin corona nanoparticles for the treatment of breast cancer

Chondroitin sulfate-mediated albumin corona nanoparticles were readily prepared without any chemical reaction, and their active tumor targeting and therapeutic effects were examined. Negatively charged chondroitin sulfate (CS) and positively charged doxorubicin (DOX) self-assembled into nanoparticles (CS-DOX-NPs) via electrostatic interactions. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was then adsorbed on the surface of CS-DOX-NPs to form albumin corona nanoparticles (BC-DOX-NPs) protected from endogenous proteins. Due to the dual effect of BSA and CS, BC-DOX-NPs interacted with the gp60, SPARC and CD44 receptors on tumor cells, facilitating their rapid and efficient transcytosis and improving their accumulation and uptake within tumor tissues. The simultaneous presence of BSA and CS also allowed BC-DOX-NPs to target CD44 efficiently, leading to greater cellular uptake and cytotoxicity against 4T1 cells than CS-DOX-NPs or free DOX. Intravenous injection of BC-DOX-NPs into orthotopic 4T1 tumor-bearing mice led to greater drug accumulation at the tumor site than with CS-DOX-NPs or free DOX, resulting in significant inhibition of tumor growth and lower exposure of major organs to the drug.

Carfilzomib and Paclitaxel Co-Loaded Protein Nanoparticles an Effective Therapy Against Pancreatic Adenocarcinomas

Purpose

Therapeutic efficacy of pancreatic adenocarcinomas (PACs) with combined therapy of carfilzomib (CFZ) and paclitaxel (PTX) co-loaded in human serum albumin (HSA) nanoparticles (NPs) was examined.

Methods

CFZ and PTX were encapsulated individually or combined into HSA NPs by a simple reverse self-assembly method developed to achieve an optimal combination ratio for synergistic therapy. CFZ or/and PTX loaded HSA nanoparticles were physically characterized and the evaluation of combination index, drug release, pharmacokinetic, anti-tumor, and biodistribution studies were conducted.

Results

All resultant drug-loaded HSA NPs were spherical with a particle size of <150 nm and a zeta potential of −21.1~−23.0 mV. Drug loading rates and entrapment efficiencies were 9.1%~10.1% and 90.7%~97.1%, respectively. CFZ and PTX demonstrated synergistic effects in an MIA PaCa-2 cytotoxicity at a 1:2 ratio (CI₅₀ were 0.01~0.25). In vitro dissolution revealed that the CFZ/PTX ratio released from the co-loaded HSA NPs (CFZ/PTX/HSA NPs) was about 1.77~2.08, which conformed to the designated loaded ratio. In vivo evaluation showed that the combined therapy of CFZ and PTX at a 1:2 ratio co-loaded in HSA NPs (CFZ/PTX/HSA NPs) demonstrated optimal synergistic improvement of the growth inhibition of MIA PaCa-2 cells with less systematic toxicity, even though the pharmacokinetic profiles observed did not show obvious beneficial and their biodistributions in tumors were found to be smaller.

Conclusion

The one-pot reverse assembly method developed was environmentally friendly and capable of co-loading an optimal combination ratio of two chemodrugs into HSA NPs for synergistic therapy.

An Albumin-Binding Domain Peptide Confers Enhanced Immunoprotection Against Viral Myocarditis by CVB3 VP1 Vaccine

Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3)-induced viral myocarditis is a common clinical cardiovascular disease without effective available vaccine. In this study, we tried to potentiate the immunoprotection efficacy of our previous CVB3-specific VP1 protein vaccine by introducing a streptococcal protein G-derived, draining lymph nodes (dLNs)-targeting albumin-binding domain (ABD) peptide. We found that compared with the original VP1 vaccine, ABD-fused VP1 (ABD-VP1) vaccine gained the new ability to efficiently bind murine albumin both in vitro and in vivo, possessed a much longer serum half-life in serum and exhibited more abundance in the dLNs after immunization. Accordingly, ABD-VP1 immunization not only significantly facilitated the enrichment and maturation of dendritic cells (DCs), induced higher percentages of IFN-γ+ CD8 + cells in the dLNs, but also robustly promoted VP1-induced T cell proliferation and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses in the spleens. More importantly, ABD-VP1 also elicited higher percentages of protective CD44hi CD62Lhi memory T cells in dLNs and spleens. Consequently, obvious protective effect against viral myocarditis was conferred by ABD-VP1 vaccine compared to the VP1 vaccine, reflected by the less body weight loss, improved cardiac function, alleviated cardiac histomorphological changes and an increased 28-day survival rate. Our results indicated that the ABD might be a promising immune-enhancing regime for vaccine design and development.

Nanoparticulation of Prodrug into Medicines for Cancer Therapy

This article provides a broad spectrum about the nanoprodrug fabrication advances co-driven by prodrug and nanotechnology development to potentiate cancer treatment. The nanoprodrug inherits the features of both prodrug concept and nanomedicine know-how, attempts to solve underexploited challenge in cancer treatment cooperatively. Prodrugs can release bioactive drugs on-demand at specific sites to reduce systemic toxicity, this is done by using the special properties of the tumor microenvironment, such as pH value, glutathione concentration, and specific overexpressed enzymes; or by using exogenous stimulation, such as light, heat, and ultrasound. The nanotechnology, manipulating the matter within nanoscale, has high relevance to certain biological conditions, and has been widely utilized in cancer therapy. Together, the marriage of prodrug strategy which shield the side effects of parent drug and nanotechnology with pinpoint delivery capability has conceived highly camouflaged Trojan horse to maneuver cancerous threats.

TiO2@BSA nano-composites investigated through orthogonal multi-techniques characterization platform

Biocompatible coating based on bovine serum albumin (BSA) was applied on two different TiO₂ nanoparticles (aeroxide P25 and food grade E171) to investigate properties and stability of resulting TiO₂@BSA composites, under the final perspective to create a "Safe-by-Design" coating, able to uniform, level off and mitigate surface chemistry related phenomena, as naturally occurring when nano-phases come in touch with proteins enriched biological fluids. The first step towards validating the proposed approach is a detailed characterization of surface chemistry with the quantification of amount and stability of BSA coating deposited on nanoparticles' surfaces. At this purpose, we implemented an orthogonal multi-techniques characterization platform, providing important information on colloidal behavior, particle size distribution and BSA-coating structure of investigated TiO₂ systems. Specifically, the proposed orthogonal approach enabled the quantitative determination of bound and free (not adsorbed) BSA, a key aspect for the design of intentionally BSA coated nano-structures, in nanomedicine and, overall, for the control of nano-surface reactivity. In fact, the BSA-coating strategy developed and the orthogonal characterisation performed can be extended to different designed nanomaterials in order to further investigate the protein-corona formation and promote the implementation of BSA engineered coating as a strategy to harmonize the surface reactivity and minimize the biological impact.

The development of human serum albumin-based drugs and relevant fusion proteins for cancer therapy

Human serum albumin (HSA)-based therapeutics have attracted tremendous attention in the development of anticancer agents. The versatile properties of HSA make HSA-based therapeutics possess improved pharmacokinetics, extended circulation half-life, enhanced efficacy, reduced toxicity, etc. Generally, the HSA-based therapeutics systems can be divided into four categories, i.e. HSA-drug nanoparticles, HSA-drug conjugates, HSA-binding prodrugs, and HSA-based recombinant fusion proteins: the latter mainly include antibody (domain)- and cytokine- fusion proteins. Advances in this area revealed the advantages of HSA-based systems in the development of tumor site-oriented therapeutics, partly referring to the enhanced penetration and retention (EPR) effect and the intensive macropinocytosis. Accordingly, a variety of technical platforms for the design and preparation of HSA-based therapeutics have been reported. Major strategies and directions for the drug development were discussed; those include (1) Tumor-site oriented drug delivery and enhanced drug retention, (2) Tumor-site prodrug release and activation, (3) Cancer cell bound intensive drug internalization, and (4) Tumor microenvironment (TME) directed immunomodulation. Notably, the multimodal HSA-based approach is promising for the development of tumor-oriented therapeutics for cancer therapy.

Interaction between DNA, Albumin and Apo-Transferrin and Iridium(III) Complexes with Phosphines Derived from Fluoroquinolones as a Potent Anticancer Drug

A group of cytotoxic half-sandwich iridium(III) complexes with aminomethyl(diphenyl)phosphine derived from fluoroquinolone antibiotics exhibit the ability to (i) accumulate in the nucleus, (ii) induce apoptosis, (iii) activate caspase-3/7 activity, (iv) induce the changes in cell cycle leading to G2/M phase arrest, and (v) radicals generation. Herein, to elucidate the cytotoxic effects, we investigated the interaction of these complexes with DNA and serum proteins by gel electrophoresis, fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism, and molecular docking studies. DNA binding experiments established that the complexes interact with DNA by moderate intercalation and predominance of minor groove binding without the capability to cause a double-strand cleavage. The molecular docking study confirmed two binding modes: minor groove binding and threading intercalation with the fluoroquinolone part of the molecule involved in pi stacking interactions and the Ir(III)-containing region positioned within the major or minor groove. Fluorescence spectroscopic data (HSA and apo-Tf titration), together with molecular docking, provided evidence that Ir(III) complexes can bind to the proteins in order to be transferred. All the compounds considered herein were found to bind to the tryptophan residues of HSA within site I (subdomain II A). Furthermore, Ir(III) complexes were found to dock within the apo-Tf binding site, including nearby tyrosine residues.

The protein corona and its effects on nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems

In most cases, once nanoparticles (NPs) enter the blood, their surface is covered by biological molecules, especially proteins, forming a so-called protein corona (PC). As a result, what the cells of the body "see" is not the NPs as formulated by the chemists, but the PC. In this way, the PC can influence the effects of the NPs and even mask the desired effects of the NP components. While this can argue for trying to inhibit protein-nanomaterial interactions, encapsulating NPs in an endogenous PC may increase their clinical usefulness. In this review, we briefly introduce the concept of the PC, its formation and its effects on the behavior of NPs. We also discuss how to reduce the formation of PCs or exploit them to enhance NP functions. Studying the interactions between proteins and NPs will provide insights into their clinical activity in health and disease. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The formation of protein corona (PC) will affect the operation of nanoparticles (NPs) in vivo. Since there are many proteins in the blood, it is impossible to completely overcome the formation of PC. Therefore, the use of PCs to deliver drug is the best choice. De-opsonins adsorbed on NPs can reduce macrophage phagocytosis and cytotoxicity of NPs, and prolong their circulation in blood. Albumin, apolipoprotein and transferrin are typical de-opsonins. In present review, we mainly discuss how to optimize the delivery of nanoparticles through the formation of albumin corona, transferrin corona and apolipoprotein corona in vivo or in vitro.

Albumin Nanostructures for Nucleic Acid Delivery in Cancer: Current Trend, Emerging Issues, and Possible Solutions

Cancer is one of the major health problems worldwide, and hence, suitable therapies with enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects are desired. Gene therapy, involving plasmids, small interfering RNAs, and antisense oligonucleotides have been showing promising potential in cancer therapy. In recent years, the preparation of various carriers for nucleic acid delivery to the tumor sites is gaining attention since intracellular and extracellular barriers impart major challenges in the delivery of naked nucleic acids. Albumin is a versatile protein being used widely for developing carriers for nucleic acids. It provides biocompatibility, tumor specificity, the possibility for surface modification, and reduces toxicity. In this review, the advantages of using nucleic acids in cancer therapy and the challenges associated with their delivery are presented. The focus of this article is on the different types of albumin nanocarriers, such as nanoparticles, polyplexes, and nanoconjugates, employed to overcome the limitations of the direct use of nucleic acids in vivo. This review also highlights various approaches for the modification of the surface of albumin to enhance its transfection efficiency and targeted delivery in the tumor sites.

Tumor-Penetrable Nitric Oxide-Releasing Nanoparticles Potentiate Local Antimelanoma Therapy

Although nitric oxide (NO) has been emerging as a novel local anticancer agent because of its potent cytotoxic effects and lack of off-target side effects, its clinical applications remain a challenge because of the short effective diffusion distance of NO that limits its anticancer activity. In this study, we synthesized albumin-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-conjugated linear polyethylenimine diazeniumdiolate (LP/NO) nanoparticles (Alb-PLP/NO NPs) that possess tumor-penetrating and NO-releasing properties for an effective local treatment of melanoma. Sufficient NO-loading and prolonged NO-releasing characteristics of Alb-PLP/NO NPs were acquired through PLGA-conjugated LP/NO copolymer (PLP/NO) synthesis, followed by nanoparticle fabrication. In addition, tumor penetration ability was rendered by the electrostatic adsorption of the albumin on the surface of the nanoparticles. The Alb-PLP/NO NPs showed enhanced intracellular NO delivery efficiency and cytotoxicity to B16F10 murine melanoma cells. In B16F10-tumor-bearing mice, the Alb-PLP/NO NPs showed improved extracellular matrix penetration and spatial distribution in the tumor tissue after intratumoral injection, resulting in enhanced antitumor activity. Taken together, the results suggest that Alb-PLP/NO NPs represent a promising new modality for the local treatment of melanoma.

Overcoming barriers in photodynamic therapy harnessing nano-formulation strategies

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been extensively investigated for decades for tumor treatment because of its non-invasiveness, spatiotemporal selectivity, lower side-effects, and immune activation ability. It can be a promising treatment modality in several medical fields, including oncology, immunology, urology, dermatology, ophthalmology, cardiology, pneumology, and dentistry. Nevertheless, the clinical application of PDT is largely restricted by the drawbacks of traditional photosensitizers, limited tissue penetrability of light, inefficient induction of tumor cell death, tumor resistance to the therapy, and the severe pain induced by the therapy. Recently, various photosensitizer formulations and therapy strategies have been developed to overcome these barriers. Significantly, the introduction of nanomaterials in PDT, as carriers or photosensitizers, may overcome the drawbacks of traditional photosensitizers. Based on this, nanocomposites excited by various light sources are applied in the PDT of deep-seated tumors. Modulation of cell death pathways with co-delivered reagents promotes PDT induced tumor cell death. Relief of tumor resistance to PDT with combined therapy strategies further promotes tumor inhibition. Also, the optimization of photosensitizer formulations and therapy procedures reduces pain in PDT. Here, a systematic summary of recent advances in the fabrication of photosensitizers and the design of therapy strategies to overcome barriers in PDT is presented. Several aspects important for the clinical application of PDT in cancer treatment are also discussed.

Temozolomide nano enabled medicine: promises made by the nanocarriers in glioblastoma therapy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is abnormal cell proliferation of glial cells. GBM is the grade IV glioma brain cancer which is life-threatening to many individuals affected by this cancer. The DNA alkylating agent Temozolomide (TMZ) has the distinctiveness of being FDA approved anticancer drug for the first line treatment for GBM. However, treatment of GBM still remains a challenge. This is attributed to TMZ's toxic nature, severe side effects, and fast degradation in vivo. In addition, the lack of targeting ability increases the chances of systemic toxicities. A nano enabled targeted delivery system not only improves the efficiency of TMZ by making it cross the blood brain barrier, have specificity to target, but also reduces toxicity to healthy tissues. Over the last decade the significant advances in the area of nanotechnology applied to medicine have developed many multifunctional therapeutics. In this context, the present review article comprehends the significant progress in the field of TMZ loaded nanocarriers showing promise for futuristic nanomedicine therapies in treating GBM.

Protein-Based Nanomedicine for Therapeutic Benefits of Cancer

Proteins, a type of natural biopolymer that possess many prominent merits, have been widely utilized to engineer nanomedicine for fighting against cancer. Motivated by their ever-increasing attention in the scientific community, this review aims to provide a comprehensive showcase on the current landscape of protein-based nanomedicine for cancer therapy. On the basis of role differences of proteins in nanomedicine, protein-based nanomedicine engineered with protein therapeutics, protein carriers, enzymes, and composite proteins is introduced. The cancer therapeutic benefits of the protein-based nanomedicine are also discussed, including small-molecular therapeutics-mediated therapy, macromolecular therapeutics-mediated therapy, radiation-mediated therapy, reactive oxygen species-mediated therapy, and thermal effect-mediated therapy. Lastly, future developments and potential challenges of protein-based nanomedicine are elucidated toward clinical translation. It is believed that protein-based nanomedicine will play a vital role in the battle against cancer. We hope that this review will inspire extensive research interests from diverse disciplines to further push the developments of protein-based nanomedicine in the biomedical frontier, contributing to ever-greater medical advances.

When Albumin Meets Liposomes: A Feasible Drug Carrier for Biomedical Applications

Albumin, the most abundant protein in plasma, possesses some inherent beneficial structural and physiological characteristics that make it suitable for use as a drug delivery agent, such as an extraordinary drug-binding capacity and long blood retention, with a high biocompatibility. The use of these characteristics as a nanoparticle drug delivery system (DDS) offers several advantages, including a longer circulation time, lower toxicity, and more significant drug loading. To date, many innovative liposome preparations have been developed in which albumin is involved as a DDS. These novel albumin-containing liposome preparations show superior deliverability for genes, hydrophilic/hydrophobic substances and proteins/peptides to the targeting area compared to original liposomes by virtue of their high biocompatibility, stability, effective loading content, and the capacity for targeting. This review summarizes the current status of albumin applications in liposome-based DDS, focusing on albumin-coated liposomes and albumin-encapsulated liposomes as a DDS carrier for potential medical applications.

Human Serum Albumin Decorated Indocyanine Green Improves Fluorescence-Guided Resection of Residual Lesions of Breast Cancer in Mice

Objective

Achieving negative resection margin is critical but challenging in breast-conserving surgery. Fluorescence-guided surgery allows the surgeon to visualize the tumor bed in real-time and to facilitate complete resection. We envisioned that intraoperative real-time fluorescence imaging with a human serum albumin decorated indocyanine green probe could enable complete surgical removal of breast cancer in a mouse model.

Methods

We prepared the probe by conjugating indocyanine green (ICG) with human serum albumin (HSA). In vitro uptake of the HSA-ICG probe was compared between human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 and normal breast epithelial cell line MCF 10A. In vivo probe selectivity for tumors was examined in nude mice bearing MDA-MB-231-luc xenografts and the FVB/N-Tg (MMTV-PyMT) 634Mul/J mice model with spontaneous breast cancer. A positive-margin resection mice model bearing MDA-MB-231-luc xenograft was established and the performance of the probe in assisting surgical resection of residual lesions was examined.

Results

A significantly stronger fluorescence intensity was detected in MDA-MB-231 cells than MCF 10A cells incubated with HSA-ICG. In vivo fluorescence imaging showed that HSA-ICG had an obvious accumulation at tumor site at 24 h with tumor-to-normal tissue ratio of 8.19 ± 1.30. The same was true in the transgenic mice model. The fluorescence intensity of cancer tissues was higher than that of non-cancer tissues (58.53 ± 18.15 vs 32.88 ± 11.34). During the surgical scenarios, the residual tumors on the surgical bed were invisible with the naked eye, but were detected and resected with negative margin under HSA-ICG guidance in all the mice (8/8). Recurrence rate among mice that underwent resection with HSA-ICG (0/8) was significantly lower than the rates among mice with ICG (4/8), as well as the control group under white light (7/7).

Conclusions

This study suggests that real-time in vivo visualization of breast cancer with an HSA-ICG fluorescent probe facilitates complete surgical resection of breast cancer in a mouse xenograft model.

Serum protein-based nanoparticles for cancer diagnosis and treatment

Serum protein as naturally essential biomacromolecules has recently emerged as a versatile carrier for diagnostic and therapeutic drug delivery for cancer nanomedicine with superior biocompatibility, improved pharmacokinetics and enhanced targeting capacity. A variety of serum proteins have been utilized for drug delivery, mainly including albumin, ferritin/apoferritin, transferrin, low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein and hemoglobin. As evidenced by the success of paclitaxel-bound albumin nanoparticles (Abraxane^TM), serum protein-based nanoparticles have gained attractive attentions for precise biological design and potential clinical application. In this review, we summarize the general design strategies, targeting mechanisms and recent development of serum protein-based nanoparticles in the field of cancer nanomedicine. Moreover, we also concisely specify the current challenges to be addressed for a bright future of serum protein-based nanomedicines.

Chondroitin sulfate conjugation facilitates tumor cell internalization of albumin nanoparticles for brain-targeted delivery of temozolomide via CD44 receptor-mediated targeting

In the present investigation, temozolomide (TMZ) loaded chondroitin sulfate conjugated albumin nanoparticles (CS-TNPs) were fabricated by desolvation method were chondroitin sulfate (CS) was used as the surface exposed ligand to achieve CD44 receptor mediated targeting of brain tumor. The developed CS-TNPs were characterized for particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency and drug loading and evaluated by FTIR, DSC, XRD and TEM analysis. BBB (blood brain barrier) passage study using in vitro BBB model indicated that CS-TNPs were able to efficiently cross the BBB. Cell viability assay data demonstrated higher cytotoxicity of CS-TNPs as compared with pure TMZ. The CD44 receptor blocking assay and receptor poisoning assay in U87 MG cells confirmed the CD44 receptor and endocytosis-mediated (caveolae pathway) uptake of CS-TNPs. CS-TNPs were able to generate ROS in U87 MG cells. In vivo pharmacokinetic and biodistribution studies were performed in Wistar rats. In vivo results revealed significant enhancement in pharmacokinetic profile of CS-TNPs as compared with TMZ alone. Biodistribution results demonstrated higher accumulation of TMZ in the brain by CS-TNPs as compared with the pure drug that confirmed the brain targeting ability of nanoparticles. From all obtained results, it may be concluded that CS-TNPs are promising carrier to deliver TMZ to the brain for targeted therapy of brain tumor. Graphical abstract.