A novel self-assembled nanoparticle platform based on pectin-eight-arm polyethylene glycol-drug conjugates for co-delivery of anticancer drugs

Active herbal ingredients and drug delivery design for tumor therapy: a review

Active herbal ingredients are gaining recognition for their potent anti-tumor efficacy, attributable to various mechanisms including tumor cell inhibition, immune system activation, and tumor angiogenesis inhibition. Recent studies have revealed that numerous anti-tumor herbal ingredients, such as ginsenosides, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, and Angelica sinensis polysaccharides, can be utilized to develop smart drug carriers like liposomes, micelles, and nanoparticles. These carriers can deliver active herbal ingredients and co-deliver anti-tumor drugs to enhance drug accumulation at tumor sites, thereby improving anti-tumor efficacy. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the mechanisms by which these active herbal ingredients-derived carriers enhance therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, it highlights the structural properties of these active herbal ingredients, demonstrating how their unique features can be strategically employed to design smart drug carriers with improved anti-tumor efficacy. The insights presented aim to serve as a reference and guide future innovations in the design and application of smart drug carriers for cancer therapy that leverage active herbal ingredients.

How the Versatile Self-Assembly in Drug Delivery System to Afford Multimodal Cancer Therapy?

The rapid development of self-assembly technology during the past few decades has effectively addressed plenty of the issues associated with carrier-based drug delivery systems, such as low loading efficiency, complex fabrication processes, and inherent toxicity of carriers. The integration of nanoscale delivery systems with self-assembly techniques has enabled efficient and targeted self-administration of drugs, enhanced bioavailability, prolonged circulation time, and controllable drug release. Concurrently, the limitations of single-mode cancer treatment, including low bioavailability, poor therapeutic outcomes, and significant side effects, have highlighted the urgent need for multimodal combined antitumor therapies. Set against the backdrop of multimodal cancer therapy, this review summarizes the research progress and applications of a large number of self-assembled drug delivery platforms, including natural small molecule self-assembled, carrier-free self-assembled, amphiphilic polymer-based self-assembled, peptide-based self-assembled, and metal-based self-assembled nano drug delivery systems. This review particularly analyzes the latest advances in the application of self-assembled nano drug delivery platforms in combined antitumor therapies mediated by chemotherapy, phototherapy, radiotherapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy, providing innovative research insights for further optimization and expansion of self-assembled nano drug delivery systems in the clinical translation and development of antitumor combined therapy.

New insights into polysaccharide-based nanostructured delivery systems in breast cancer: Possible application of antisense oligonucleotides in breast cancer therapy

The lack of more effective therapies for breast cancer has enhanced mortality among breast cancer patients. Recent efforts have established efficient treatments to reduce breast cancer-related deaths. The ever-increasing attraction to employing biocompatible polysaccharide-based nanostructures as delivery systems has created interest in various disease therapies, especially breast cancer treatment. A wide range of therapeutic cargo comprising bioactive or chemical drugs, oligonucleotides, peptides, and targeted biomarkers have been considered to comprehend their anti-cancer effects against breast cancer. Some limitations of naked agents or undesired constructs, such as no or low bioavailability, enzymatic digestion, short-range stability, low-cellular uptake, poor solubility, and low surface area, have lessened their effectiveness. However, nanoscale formulations of therapeutic ingredients have provided a promising platform to address the mentioned concerns. For instance, some capable polysaccharides, including cellulose, pectin, chitosan, alginate, and dextran, were developed as breast cancer therapeutics with great nanoparticle structures. This review carefully examines the characteristics of beneficial polysaccharides that are utilized in the formation of nanoparticles (NPs). It also highlights the applications of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), and NPs made from polysaccharides in the treatment of breast cancer and suggests ways to enhance these particles for future research.

Pectin a multifaceted biopolymer in the management of cancer: A review

This review article focuses on the multifaceted roles of pectin in cancer management, namely as an oncotherapeutic delivery vehicle and a pharmacological agent. Over the past decades, the potential of pectin as a novel therapeutical agent for the prevention and/or management of cancer has gained increasing interest. Pectin has been found to modulate different mechanisms involved in the onset and progression of carcinogenesis, such as galectin-3 inhibition, caspase-3-induced apoptosis, and autophagy. Elucidating the structure-activity relationship provides insight into the relationship between the structure of pectin and different mechanism/s. The bioactivity of pectin, with respect to its structure, was critically discussed to give a better insight of the relationship between the structure of the extracted pectin and the observed bioactive effects. The rhamnogalacturonan I part of the pectin chain was found to bind to galectin-3, associated with several cancer hallmarks. The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of pectin were also described. The roles of pectin as a treatment enhancer and a drug delivery vehicle for oncotherapeutics were critically defined. The scientific findings presented in this paper are expected to highlight the potential and role of pectin recovered from various plant sources in preventing and managing cancer.

Versatile functionalization of pectic conjugate: From design to biomedical applications

Pectin exists extensively in nature and has attracted much attention in biological applications for its unique chemical and physical characteristics. Functionalized pectin, especially pectic conjugates, has given many possibilities for pectin to improve its properties and bioactivity as well as to deliver active molecules. To better exploit this strategy of pectic functionalization, this review presents in detail the structural modifications of pectin, different synthetic methods, and design strategies of pectic conjugates involving both traditional chemical and "green" approaches. Here, the research ideas and applications of pectic prodrugs as well as the development of preparation based on pectic conjugates are reviewed, with emphasis on crosslinking systems of functionalized pectin and nanosystems based on self-assembly techniques. We hope this review will provide comprehensive and valuable information for the functionalization and systematization of the pectic conjugate from synthesis to application.

Biopolymer- and Lipid-Based Carriers for the Delivery of Plant-Based Ingredients

Natural ingredients are gaining increasing attention from manufacturers following consumers’ concerns about the excessive use of synthetic ingredients. However, the use of natural extracts or molecules to achieve desirable qualities throughout the shelf life of foodstuff and, upon consumption, in the relevant biological environment is severely limited by their poor performance, especially with respect to solubility, stability against environmental conditions during product manufacturing, storage, and bioavailability upon consumption. Nanoencapsulation can be seen as an attractive approach with which to overcome these challenges. Among the different nanoencapsulation systems, lipids and biopolymer-based nanocarriers have emerged as the most effective ones because of their intrinsic low toxicity following their formulation with biocompatible and biodegradable materials. The present review aims to provide a survey of the recent advances in nanoscale carriers, formulated with biopolymers or lipids, for the encapsulation of natural compounds and plant extracts.

Advances in Antitumor Nano-Drug Delivery Systems of 10-Hydroxycamptothecin

10-Hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT) is a natural plant alkaloid from Camptotheca that shows potent antitumor activity by targeting intracellular topoisomerase I. However, factors such as instability of the lactone ring and insolubility in water have limited the clinical application of this drug. In recent years, unprecedented advances in biomedical nanotechnology have facilitated the development of nano drug delivery systems. It has been found that nanomedicine can significantly improve the stability and water solubility of HCPT. NanoMedicines with different diagnostic and therapeutic functions have been developed to significantly improve the anticancer effect of HCPT. In this paper, we collected reports on HCPT nanomedicines against tumors in the past decade. Based on current research advances, we dissected the current status and limitations of HCPT nanomedicines development and looked forward to future research directions.

Polymer-drug conjugates: Design principles, emerging synthetic strategies and clinical overview

Adagen, an enzyme replacement treatment for adenosine deaminase deficiency, was the first protein-polymer conjugate to be approved in early 1990s. Post this regulatory approval, numerous polymeric drugs and polymeric nanoparticles have entered the market as advanced or next-generation polymer-based therapeutics, while many others have currently been tested clinically. The polymer conjugation to therapeutic moiety offers several advantages, like enhanced solubilization of drug, controlled release, reduced immunogenicity, and prolonged circulation. The present review intends to highlight considerations in the design of therapeutically effective polymer-drug conjugates (PDCs), including the choice of linker chemistry. The potential synthetic strategies to formulate PDCs have been discussed along with recent advancements in the different types of PDCs, i.e., polymer-small molecular weight drug conjugates, polymer-protein conjugates, and stimuli-responsive PDCs, which are under clinical/preclinical investigation. Current impediments and regulatory hurdles hindering the clinical translation of PDC into effective therapeutic regimens for the amelioration of disease conditions have been addressed.

Nanoparticles use for Delivering Ursolic Acid in Cancer Therapy: A Scoping Review

Ursolic acid is a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid that exerts a potent anticancer effect. Furthermore, it is classified as a BCS class IV compound possessing low permeability and water solubility, consequently demonstrating limited bioavailability in addition to low therapeutic effectiveness. Nanoparticles are developed to modify the physical characteristics of drug and can often be produced in the range of 30–200 nm, providing highly effective cancer therapy due to the Enhanced Permeation and Retention (EPR) Effect. This study aims to provide a review of the efficacy and safety of various types of Ursolic Acid-loading nanoparticles within the setting of preclinical and clinical anticancer studies. This literature study used scoping review method, where the extracted data must comply with the journal inclusion criteria of within years of 2010–2020. The identification stage produced 237 suitable articles. Duplicate screening was then conducted followed by the initial selection of 18 articles that had been reviewed and extracted for data analysis. Based on this review, the use of nanoparticles can be seen to increase the anticancer efficacy of Ursolic Acid in terms of several parameters including pharmacokinetic data, survival rates and inhibition rates, as well as the absence of serious toxicity in preclinical and clinical trials in terms of several parameters including body weight, blood clinical chemistry, and organ histipathology. Based on this review, the use of nanoparticles has been able to increase the anticancer efficacy of Ursolic Acid, as well as show the absence of serious toxicity in preclinical and clinical trials. Evenmore, the liposome carrier provides development data that has reached the clinical trial phase I. The use of nanoparticle provides high potential for Ursolic Acid delivery in cancer therapy.

ROS-responsive dimeric prodrug-based nanomedicine targeted therapy for gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) remains a major public health problem. Ursolic acid (UA) is reported to be effective in inhibiting GC; however, its low solubility and poor biocompatibility have greatly hindered its clinical application. Herein, an innovative reactive oxygen species (ROS)-sensitive UA dimeric prodrug is developed by coupling two UA molecules via a ROS-cleavable linkage, which can self-assemble into stable nanoparticles in the presence of surfactant. This new UA-based delivery system comprises the following major components: (I) dimeric prodrug inner core that can achieve high drug-loading (55%, w/w) and undergo rapid and selective conversion into intact drug molecules in response to ROS; (II) a polyethylene glycol (PEG) shell to improve colloid stability and extend blood circulation, and (III) surface-modified internalizing RGD (iRGD) to increase tumor targeting. Enhancement of the antitumor effect of this delivery system was demonstrated against GC tumors in vitro and in vivo. This novel approach offers the potential for clinical applications of UA.

A novel redox-responsive ursolic acid polymeric prodrug delivery system for osteosarcoma therapy

Ursolic acid (UA), found widely in nature, exerts effective anti-tumoral activity against various malignant tumors. However, the low water solubility and poor bioavailability of UA have greatly hindered its translation to the clinic. To overcome these drawbacks, a simple redox-sensitive UA polymeric prodrug was synthesized by conjugating UA to polyethylene glycol using a disulfide bond. This formulation can self-assemble into micelles (U-SS-M) in aqueous solutions to produce small size micelles (∼62.5 nm in diameter) with high drug loading efficiency (∼16.7%) that exhibit pH and reduction dual-sensitivity. The cell and animal studies performed using the osteosarcoma MG-63 cell line and MG-63 cancer xenograft mice as the model systems consistently confirmed that the U-SS-M formulation could significantly prolong the circulation in blood and favor accumulation in tumor tissue. Targeted accumulation allows the U-SS-M to be effectively internalized by cancer cells, where the rapid release of UA is favored by a glutathione-rich and acidic intracellular environment, and ultimately achieves potent antitumor efficacy.

Pectin in biomedical and drug delivery applications: A review

Natural macromolecules have attracted increasing attention due to their biocompatibility, low toxicity, and biodegradability. Pectin is one of the few polysaccharides with biomedical activity, consequently a candidate in biomedical and drug delivery Applications. Rhamnogalacturonan-II, a smaller component in pectin, plays a major role in biomedical activities. The ubiquitous presence of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups in pectin contribute to their hydrophilicity and, hence, to the favorable biocompatibility, low toxicity, and biodegradability. However, pure pectin-based materials present undesirable swelling and corrosion properties. The hydrophilic groups, via coordination, electrophilic addition, esterification, transesterification reactions, can contribute to pectin's physicochemical properties. Here the properties, extraction, and modification of pectin, which are fundamental to biomedical and drug delivery applications, are reviewed. Moreover, the synthesis, properties, and performance of pectin-based hybrid materials, composite materials, and emulsions are elaborated. The comprehensive review presented here can provide valuable information on pectin and its biomedical and drug delivery applications.

Lignin, lipid, protein, hyaluronic acid, starch, cellulose, gum, pectin, alginate and chitosan-based nanomaterials for cancer nanotherapy: Challenges and opportunities

Although nanotechnology-driven drug delivery systems are relatively new, they are rapidly evolving since the nanomaterials are deployed as effective means of diagnosis and delivery of assorted therapeutic agents to targeted intracellular sites in a controlled release manner. Nanomedicine and nanoparticulate drug delivery systems are rapidly developing as they play crucial roles in the development of therapeutic strategies for various types of cancer and malignancy. Nevertheless, high costs, associated toxicity and production of complexities are some of the critical barriers for their applications. Green nanomedicines have continually been improved as one of the viable approaches towards tumor drug delivery, thus making a notable impact on which considerably affect cancer treatment. In this regard, the utilization of natural and renewable feedstocks as a starting point for the fabrication of nanosystems can considerably contribute to the development of green nanomedicines. Nanostructures and biopolymers derived from natural and biorenewable resources such as proteins, lipids, lignin, hyaluronic acid, starch, cellulose, gum, pectin, alginate, and chitosan play vital roles in the development of cancer nanotherapy, imaging and management. This review uncovers recent investigations on diverse nanoarchitectures fabricated from natural and renewable feedstocks for the controlled/sustained and targeted drug/gene delivery systems against cancers including an outlook on some of the scientific challenges and opportunities in this field. Various important natural biopolymers and nanomaterials for cancer nanotherapy are covered and the scientific challenges and opportunities in this field are reviewed.

Nanoformulations for Delivery of Pentacyclic Triterpenoids in Anticancer Therapies

The search for safe and effective anticancer therapies is one of the major challenges of the 21st century. The ineffective treatment of cancers, classified as civilization diseases, contributes to a decreased quality of life, health loss, and premature mortality in oncological patients. Many natural phytochemicals have anticancer potential. Pentacyclic triterpenoids, characterized by six- and five-membered ring structures, are one of the largest class of natural metabolites sourced from the plant kingdom. Among the known natural triterpenoids, we can distinguish lupane-, oleanane-, and ursane-types. Pentacyclic triterpenoids are known to have many biological activities, e.g., anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. Unfortunately, they are also characterized by poor water solubility and, hence, low bioavailability. These pharmacological properties may be improved by both introducing some modifications to their native structures and developing novel delivery systems based on the latest nanotechnological achievements. The development of nanocarrier-delivery systems is aimed at increasing the transport capacity of bioactive compounds by enhancing their solubility, bioavailability, stability in vivo and ensuring tumor-targeting while their toxicity and risk of side effects are significantly reduced. Nanocarriers may vary in sizes, constituents, shapes, and surface properties, all of which affect the ultimate efficacy and safety of a given anticancer therapy, as presented in this review. The presented results demonstrate the high antitumor potential of systems for delivery of pentacyclic triterpenoids.

Targeted Delivery of Dual Anticancer Drugs Based on Self-Assembled iRGD-Modified Soluble Drug-Polymer Pattern Conjugate Nanoparticles

A tumor-penetrating peptide, iRGD (a tumor-homing peptide, CRGDKGPDC), could enhance the penetration of drugs via the specific receptor-binding affinity to αvβ3 and NRP-1 that overexpressed on tumor vasculature and tumor cells. Considering the side effects of traditional chemotherapy, here, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG, Mw = 7500)-based and iRGD-modified poly(ethylene glycol)-based nanoparticles were successfully prepared. iRGD, as a tumor-targeting and tumor-penetrating agent, was combined with PEG after the esterification reaction between PEG and diosgenin (DGN). After the efficient loading of 10-hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT), the iRGD-PEG-DGN/HCPT NPs of chemotherapy were established. The characteristics of iRGD-PEG-DGN/HCPT NPs were evaluated. This nano-delivery system possessed high drug loading efficiency (∼17.34 wt % HCPT), controlled release rate, good pH response, and iRGD active targeting and passive targeting with an appropriate size (∼140 nm). All these features forcefully indicated that the iRGD-modified drug delivery system could markedly ameliorate the tumor therapy efficacy compared to the nontargeted nanoparticles through enhancing the tumor accumulation and penetration.

Self-Assembled Folic Acid-Targeted Pectin-Multi-Arm Polyethylene Glycol Nanoparticles for Tumor Intracellular Chemotherapy

Ursolic acid is widely used as an effective anticancer drug for the treatment of various cancers. However, its poor water solubility, short circulation time in vivo, and lack of targeting have made it a burden for clinical applications. We report a self-assembled folate-modified pectin nanoparticle for loading ursolic acid (HCPT@F-Pt-PU NPs) and embed the anticancer drug hydroxycamptothecin to achieve synergistic treatment with ursolic acid. In addition, the galactose residue of the pectin molecule can be recognized by the asialoglycoprotein receptor on the surface of the liver cancer cell, promoting the rapid penetration and release of HCPT@F-Pt-PU NPs intracellularly. In particular, the introduction of multiarm polyethylene glycol can improve the uniformity (106 nm) and concealment of the nanoparticles and avoid the early release of the drug or the toxicity to normal cells. HCPT@F-Pt-PU NPs have a high drug loading (7.27 wt %) and embedding efficiency (19.84 wt %) and continuous circulation up to 80 h, leading to more apoptosis (91.61%). HCPT@F-Pt-PU NP intracellular drug delivery will be a promising strategy.

Pectin-Based Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Toxicity and Applications

Nanomaterials of biological origin are very useful for drug delivery applications. The stability, biodegradability and biocompatibility of pectin nanomaterials in the human body make them an effective drug carrier. This review focus on different aspect of synthesis, drug encapsulation, drug release and safety of pectin-based nanomaterials. The nanomaterials can be used for the delivery of different hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs to various organs. The release kinetics of drug loaded pectin-based nanoparticles can be studied in vitro as well as in vivo. The pectin-based nanomaterials have good pharmaco-kinetics and can ensure controlled drug delivery. However, the toxicity of pectin-based nanomaterials to human body needs to be evaluated carefully before industrial scale application.

Self-assembled dihydroartemisinin nanoparticles as a platform for cervical cancer chemotherapy

Dihydroartemisinin (DHA) is a potent anti-cancer drug that has limited clinical applications due to poor water solubility and low bioavailability. We designed a biodegradable poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-poly(ε-caprolactone) (MPEG-PCL) micelle carrier for DHA using the self-assembly method. The DHA/MPEG-PCL nanoparticles were spherical with an average particle size of 30.28 ± 0.27 nm, and released the drug in a sustained manner in aqueous solution. The drug-loaded nanoparticles showed dose-dependent toxicity in HeLa cells by inducing cycle arrest and apoptosis. Furthermore, compared to free DHA, the DHA/MPEG-PCL nanoparticles showed higher therapeutic efficacy and lower toxicity in vivo, and significantly inhibited tumor growth and prolonged the survival of tumor-bearing nude mice. In addition, the tumor tissues of the DHA/MPEG-PCL-treated mice showed a marked decline in the in situ expression of proliferation and angiogenesis markers. Taken together, the self-assembled DHA/MPEG-PCL nanoparticles are a highly promising delivery system for targeted cancer treatment.

Evolution from small molecule to nano-drug delivery systems: An emerging approach for cancer therapy of ursolic acid

Ursolic acid (UA), a natural pentacyclic triterpenoid, possesses widespread biological and pharmacological activities. However, drawbacks such as low bioavailability, poor targeting and rapid metabolism greatly hinder its further clinical application. Recently, with the development of nanotechnology, various UA nanosystems have emerged as promising strategies for effective cancer therapy. This article reviews various types of UA-based nano-delivery systems, primarily with emphasis placed on novel UA-based carrier-free nano-drugs, which are considered to be innovative methods for cancer therapy. Moreover, this review presents carrier-free nano-drugs that co-assembled of UA and photosensitizers that displayed synergistic antitumor performance. Finally, the article also describes the development and challenges of UA nanosystems for future research in this field. Overall, the information presented in this review will provide new insight into the rational utilization of nano-drugs in cancer therapy.

Glycosaminoglycan-Inspired Biomaterials for the Development of Bioactive Hydrogel Networks

Glycosaminoglycans (GAG) are long, linear polysaccharides that display a wide range of relevant biological roles. Particularly, in the extracellular matrix (ECM) GAG specifically interact with other biological molecules, such as growth factors, protecting them from proteolysis or inhibiting factors. Additionally, ECM GAG are partially responsible for the mechanical stability of tissues due to their capacity to retain high amounts of water, enabling hydration of the ECM and rendering it resistant to compressive forces. In this review, the use of GAG for developing hydrogel networks with improved biological activity and/or mechanical properties is discussed. Greater focus is given to strategies involving the production of hydrogels that are composed of GAG alone or in combination with other materials. Additionally, approaches used to introduce GAG-inspired features in biomaterials of different sources will also be presented.

Design and synthesis of pentacyclic triterpene conjugates and their use in medicinal research

Triterpenoids are natural products from plants and many other organisms that have various biological activities, such as antitumor, antiviral, antimicrobial, and protective activities. This review covers the synthesis and biological evaluation of pentacyclic triterpene (PT) conjugates with other molecules that have been found to increase the IC₅₀ or improve the pharmacological profile of the parent PT. Some of these molecules are designed to target specific proteins or cellular organelles, which has resulted in highly selective lead structures for drug development. Other PT conjugates are useful for investigating their mechanism of action. This concept has been very successful: 1) Many compounds, especially mitochondria-targeting PT conjugates, have reached a selective cytotoxicity at low nanomolar concentrations in cancer cells. 2) A number of PT conjugates have had high activity against HIV or the influenza virus. 3) Fluorescent PT conjugates have been able to visualize the PT in living cells, which has allowed quantification of the uptake and distribution of the PT within the cell. 4) Biotinylated PT conjugates have been used to identify target proteins, which may help to show their mechanism of action. 5) A large number of PT conjugates with polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyamines, etc. form nanometer-sized micelles that have a much better pharmacological profile than the PT alone. In summary, the connection of a PT to an appropriate modifying molecule has resulted in extremely useful semisynthetic compounds with a high potential to treat cancer or viral infections or compounds that are useful for the study of the mechanism of action of PTs at the molecular level.

Release of Fragrances from Cotton Functionalized with Carbohydrate-Binding Module Proteins

Perspiration as a response to daily activity and physical exercise results in unpleasant odors that cause social unrest and embarrassment. To tackle it, functional textiles incorporating fragrances could be an effective clothing deodorizing product. This work presents two strategies for the release of β-citronellol from functionalized cotton with carbohydrate-binding module (CBM)-based complexes (OBP::GQ₂₀::CBM/β-citronellol-approach 1 and CBM::GQ₂₀::SP-DS3-liposome/β-citronellol-approach 2). CBM from Cellulomonas fimi was fused with the odorant-binding protein (OBP::GQ₂₀::CBM) and with an anchor peptide with affinity to the liposome membrane (CBM::GQ₂₀::SP-DS3). In approach 1, OBP fusion protein served as a fragrance container, whereas in approach 2, the fragrance was loaded into liposomes with a higher cargo capacity. The two strategies showed a differentiated β-citronellol release profile triggered by an acidic sweat solution. OBP::GQ₂₀::CBM complex revealed a fast release (31.9% and 25.8% of the initial amount, after 1.5 and 24 h of exposure with acidic sweat solution, respectively), while the CBM::GQ₂₀::SP-DS3-liposome complex demonstrated a slower and controlled release (5.9% and 10.5% of the initial amount, after 1.5 and 24 h of exposure with acidic sweat solution, respectively). Both strategies revealed high potential for textile functionalization aimed at controlled release of fragrances. The OBP::GQ₂₀::CBM/β-citronellol complex is ideal for applications requiring fast release of a high amount of fragrance, whereas the CBM::GQ₂₀::SP-DS3-liposome/β-citronellol complex is more suitable for prolonged and controlled release of a lower amount of β-citronellol.

Nanoconjugation and Encapsulation Strategies for Improving Drug Delivery and Therapeutic Efficacy of Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs

Nanoconjugations have been demonstrated to be a dominant strategy for drug delivery and biomedical applications. In this review, we intend to describe several strategies for drug formulation, especially to improve the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble molecules for future application in the therapy of numerous diseases. The context of current studies will give readers an overview of the conjugation strategies for fabricating nanoparticles, which have expanded from conjugated materials to the surface conjugation of nanovehicles. Moreover, nanoconjugates for theranostics are also discussed and highlighted. Overall, these state-of-the-art conjugation methods and these techniques and applications for nanoparticulate systems of poorly water-soluble drugs will inspire scientists to explore and discover more productive techniques and methodologies for drug development.

Chitosan-Based Nanogel Enhances Chemotherapeutic Efficacy of 10-Hydroxycamptothecin against Human Breast Cancer Cells

Chitosan (CS), the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature, has been widely developed as a nanoscopic drug delivery vehicle due to its intriguing characteristics. In this work, a positively charged CS-based nanogel was designed and synthesized to inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer cell lines. The model drug of 10-hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT) was entrapped into the core via a facile diffusion to form CS/HCPT. The characteristics of CS/HCPT were evaluated by assessing particle size, drug loading content, and drug loading efficiency. Furthermore, cell internalization, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis of CS/HCPT were also investigated in vitro. The present investigation indicated that the positively charged CS-based nanogel could be potentially used as a promising drug delivery system.

Experimental study on the use of a chlorhexidine-loaded carboxymethylcellulose gel as antibacterial coating for hernia repair meshes

PURPOSE

Biomaterials with an antimicrobial coating could avoid mesh-associated infection following hernia repair. This study assesses the use of a chlorhexidine-loaded carboxymethylcellulose gel in a model of Staphylococcus aureus mesh infection.

METHODS

A 1% carboxymethylcellulose gel containing 0.05% chlorhexidine was prepared and tested in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro tests were antibacterial activity (S. aureus; agar diffusion test) and gel cytotoxicity compared to aqueous 0.05% chlorhexidine (fibroblasts; alamarBlue). For the in vivo study, partial abdominal wall defects (5 × 2 cm) were created in New Zealand white rabbits (n = 15) and inoculated with 0.25 mL of S. aureus (10⁶ CFU/mL). Defects were repaired with a lightweight polypropylene mesh (Optilene) without coating (n = 3) or coated with a carboxymethylcellulose gel (n = 6) or chlorhexidine-loaded carboxymethylcellulose gel (n = 6). Fourteen days after surgery, bacterial adhesion to the implant (sonication, immunohistochemistry), host tissue incorporation (light microscopy) and macrophage reaction (immunohistochemistry) were examined.

RESULTS

Carboxymethylcellulose significantly reduced the toxicity of chlorhexidine (p < 0.001) without limiting its antibacterial activity. While control and gel-coated implants were intensely contaminated, the chlorhexidine-gel-coated meshes showed a bacteria-free surface, and only one specimen showed infection signs. The macrophage reaction in this last group was reduced compared to the control (p < 0.05) and gel groups.

CONCLUSIONS

When incorporated in the carboxymethylcellulose gel, chlorhexidine showed reduced toxicity yet maintained its bactericidal effect at the surgery site. Our findings suggest that this antibacterial gel-coated polypropylene meshes for hernia repair prevent bacterial adhesion to the mesh surface and have no detrimental effects on wound repair.

Pectin Oligosaccharides Ameliorate Colon Cancer by Regulating Oxidative Stress- and Inflammation-Activated Signaling Pathways

Colon cancer (CC) is the third common neoplasm worldwide, and it is still a big challenge for exploring new effective medicine for treating CC. Natural product promoting human health has become a hot topic and attracted many researchers recently. Pectin, a complex polysaccharide in plant cell wall, mainly consists of four major types of polysaccharides: homogalacturonan, xylogalacturonan, rhamnogalacturonan I and II, all of which can be degraded into various pectin oligosaccharides (POS) and may provide abundant resource for exploring potential anticancer drugs. POS have been regarded as a novel class of potential functional food with multiple health-promoting properties. POS have antibacterial activities against some aggressive and recurrent bacterial infection and exert beneficial immunomodulation for controlling CC risk. However, the molecular functional role of POS in the prevention of CC risk and progression remains doubtful. The review focuses on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory roles of POS for promoting human health by regulating some potential oxidative and inflammation-activated pathways, such as ATP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways. The activation of these signaling pathways increases the antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities, which will result in the apoptosis of CC cells or in the prevention of CC risk and progression. Thus, POS may inhibit CC development by affecting antioxidant and antiinflammatory signaling pathways AMPK, Nrf2, and NF-κB. However, POS also can activate signal transduction and transcriptional activator 1 and 3 signaling pathway, which will reduce antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and promote CC progression. Specific structural and structurally modified POS may be associated with their functions and should be deeply explored in the future. The present review paper lacks the important information for the linkage between the specific structure of POS and its function. To further explore the effects of prebiotic potential of POS and their derivatives on human immunomodulation in the prevention of CC, the specific POS with a certain degree of polymerization or purified polymers are highly demanded to be performed in clinical practice.