Poly(d,l-lactide)/polyethylene glycol micro/nanofiber mats as paclitaxel-eluting carriers: preparation and characterization of fibers, in vitro drug release, antiangiogenic activity and tumor recurrence prevention

Highly Porous 3D Nanofibrous Scaffold of Polylactic Acid/Polyethylene Glycol/Calcium Phosphate for Bone Regeneration by a Two-Step Solution Blow Spinning (SBS) Facile Route

This work presents the successful production of highly porous 3D nanofibrous hybrid scaffolds of polylactic acid (PLA)/polyethylene glycol (PEG) blends with the incorporation of calcium phosphate (CaP) bioceramics by a facile two-step process using the solution blow spinning (SBS) technique. CaP nanofibers were obtained at two calcium/phosphorus (Ca/P) ratios, 1.67 and 1.1, by SBS and calcination at 1000 °C. They were incorporated in PLA/PEG blends by SBS at 10 and 20 wt% to form 3D hybrid cotton-wool-like scaffolds. Morphological analysis showed that the fibrous scaffolds obtained had a randomly interconnected and highly porous structure. Also, the mean fiber diameter ranged from 408 ± 141 nm to 893 ± 496 nm. Apatite deposited considerably within 14 days in a simulated body fluid (SBF) test for hybrid scaffolds containing a mix of hydroxyapatite (HAp) and tri-calcium phosphate-β (β-TCP) phases. The scaffolds with 20 wt% CaP and a Ca/P ration of 1.1 showed better in vitro bioactivity to induce calcium mineralization for bone regeneration. Cellular tests evidenced that the developed scaffolds can support the osteogenic differentiation and proliferation of pre-osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells into mature osteoblasts. The results showed that the developed 3D scaffolds have potential applications for bone tissue engineering.

Commercial hydrogel product for drug delivery based on route of administration

Hydrogels are hydrophilic, three-dimensional, cross-linked polymers that absorb significant amounts of biological fluids or water. Hydrogels possess several favorable properties, including flexibility, stimulus-responsiveness, versatility, and structural composition. They can be categorized according to their sources, synthesis route, response to stimulus, and application. Controlling the cross-link density matrix and the hydrogels' attraction to water while they're swelling makes it easy to change their porous structure, which makes them ideal for drug delivery. Hydrogel in drug delivery can be achieved by various routes involving injectable, oral, buccal, vaginal, ocular, and transdermal administration routes. The hydrogel market is expected to grow from its 2019 valuation of USD 22.1 billion to USD 31.4 billion by 2027. Commercial hydrogels are helpful for various drug delivery applications, such as transdermal patches with controlled release characteristics, stimuli-responsive hydrogels for oral administration, and localized delivery via parenteral means. Here, we are mainly focused on the commercial hydrogel products used for drug delivery based on the described route of administration.

Exploring the vast potentials and probable limitations of novel and nanostructured implantable drug delivery systems for cancer treatment

Conventional cancer chemotherapy regimens, albeit successful to some extent, suffer from some significant drawbacks, such as high-dose requirements, limited bioavailability, low therapeutic indices, emergence of multiple drug resistance, off-target distribution, and adverse effects. The main goal of developing implantable drug delivery systems (IDDS) is to address these challenges and maintain anti-cancer drugs directly at the intended sites of therapeutic action while minimizing inevitable side effects. IDDS possess numerous advantages over conventional drug delivery, including controlled drug release patterns, one-time drug administration, as well as loading and stabilizing poorly water-soluble chemotherapy drugs. Here, we summarized conventional and novel (three-dimensional (3D) printing and microfluidic) preparation techniques of different IDDS, including nanofibers, films, hydrogels, wafers, sponges, and osmotic pumps. These systems could be designed with high biocompatibility and biodegradability features using a wide variety of natural and synthetic polymers. We also reviewed the published data on these systems in cancer therapy with a particular focus on their release behavior. Various release profiles could be attained in IDDS, which enable predictable, adjustable, and sustained drug releases. Furthermore, multi-step or stimuli-responsive drug release could be obtained in these systems. The studies mentioned in this article have proven the effectiveness of IDDS for treating different cancer types with high prevalence, including breast cancer, and aggressive cancer types, such as glioblastoma and liver cancer. Additionally, the challenges in applying IDDS for efficacious cancer therapy and their potential future developments are also discussed. Considering the high potential of IDDS for further advancements, such as programmable release and degradation features, further clinical trials are needed to ensure their efficiency. The overall goal of this review is to expand our understanding of the behavior of commonly investigated IDDS and to identify the barriers that should be addressed in the pursuit of more efficient therapies for cancer. See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).

Multilayered Polyurethane/Poly(vinyl alcohol) Nanofibrous Mats for Local Topotecan Delivery as a Potential Retinoblastoma Treatment

Local chemotherapy using polymer drug delivery systems has the potential to treat some cancers, including intraocular retinoblastoma, which is difficult to treat with systemically delivered drugs. Well-designed carriers can provide the required drug concentration at the target site over a prolonged time, reduce the overall drug dose needed, and suppress severe side effects. Herein, nanofibrous carriers of the anticancer agent topotecan (TPT) with a multilayered structure composed of a TPT-loaded inner layer of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and outer covering layers of polyurethane (PUR) are proposed. Scanning electron microscopy showed homogeneous incorporation of TPT into the PVA nanofibers. HPLC-FLD proved the good loading efficiency of TPT (≥85%) with a content of the pharmacologically active lactone TPT of more than 97%. In vitro release experiments demonstrated that the PUR cover layers effectively reduced the initial burst release of hydrophilic TPT. In a 3-round experiment with human retinoblastoma cells (Y-79), TPT showed prolonged release from the sandwich-structured nanofibers compared with that from a PVA monolayer, with significantly enhanced cytotoxic effects as a result of an increase in the PUR layer thickness. The presented PUR-PVA/TPT-PUR nanofibers appear to be promising carriers of active TPT lactone that could be useful for local cancer therapy.

Diffusion-mediated carving of interior topologies of all-natural protein nanoparticles to tailor sustained drug release for effective breast cancer therapy

Proteins are promising base materials for developing drug carriers with efficient blood circulation due to low possibilities of clearance by macrophages. However, such natural biopolymers have highly sophisticated molecular structures, preventing them from being assembled into nano-platforms with manipulable payload release profiles. Here, we report the self-assembly of two natural proteins (milk casein and rice protein) into protein nanoparticles (NPs, ∼150 nm) with tailorable release profiles. Diffusion of plant-derived paclitaxel (PTX)-containing eugenol into the hydrophobic cores of the NPs and subsequent dialysis to remove eugenol from the cores lead to the carving of the NP interiors. With the increase in the mass ratios of casein and rice protein, this process generates all-natural NPs with PTX loaded in their full cavities, semi-full cavities, or solid cores. These NPs can be efficiently uptaken by breast cancer cells and could kill the cancer cells efficiently. PTX in these NPs demonstrates increasingly sustained in vivo release profiles from full cavities, semi-full cavities, to solid cores, gradually extending its pharmacokinetic profiles in blood plasma to favor drug accumulation in breast tumor models. Consequently, the NPs with solid cores completely inhibit tumor growth in vivo, more effectively than those with full and semi-full cavities. Our work opens up a new avenue to the use of diffusion-mediated nanoscale carving in producing biomaterials with controllable interior topologies relevant to drug release profiles.

A bionic multichannel nanofiber conduit carrying Tubastatin A for repairing injured spinal cord

Spinal cord injury is a kind of nerve injury disease with high disability rate. The bioscaffold, which presents a biomimetic structure, can be used as “bridge” to fill the cavity formed by the liquefaction and necrosis of spinal nerve cells, and connects the two ends of the fracture to promote the effective recovery of nerve function. Tubasatin A (TUBA) is a potent selective histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) inhibitor, which can inhibit the overexpression of HDAC6 after spinal cord injury. However, TUBA is limited by high efflux ratios, low brain penetration and uptake in the treatment of spinal cord injury. Therefore, an effective carrier with efficient load rate, sustained drug release profile, and prominent repair effect is urgent to be developed. In this study, we have prepared a bionic multichannel Tubasatin A loaded nanofiber conduit (SC-TUBA(+)) through random electrospinning and post-triple network bond crosslinking for inhibiting HDAC6 as well as promoting axonal regeneration during spinal cord injury treatment. The Tubasatin A-loaded nanofibers were shown to be successfully contained in poly(glycolide-co-ε-caprolactone) (PGCL)/silk fibroin (SF) matrix, and the formed PGCL/SF-TUBA nanofibers exhibited an uniform and smooth morphology and appropriate surface wettability. Importantly, the TUBA loaded nanofibers showed a sustained-release profile, and still maintains activity and promoted the extension of axonal. In addition, the total transection large span model of rat back and immunofluorescent labeling, histological, and neurobehavioral analysis were performed for inducing spinal cord injury at T9-10, evaluating therapeutic efficiency of SC-TUBA(+), and elucidating the mechanism of TUBA release system in vivo. All the results demonstrated the significantly reduced glial scar formation, increased nerve fiber number, inhibited inflammation, reduced demyelination and protected bladder tissue of TUBA-loaded nanofibers for spinal cord injury compared to SC-TUBA, SC and Control groups, indicating their great potential for injured spinal cord healing clinically.

A review on allopathic and herbal nanofibrous drug delivery vehicles for cancer treatments

Drug delivery empowered with nanotechnology manifests to be a superior therapy to cancer. Electrospun nanofibers cocooning anti-cancerous drugs have shown tremendous cytotoxicity towards various tumor cells, including breast, brain, liver, and lung cancer cells. This pristine drug delivery system, according to literature, desists showing any undesirable effects on other parts of the body and bestows several other benefits. From nature-derived Curcumin to laboratory-made Doxorubicin, literature proclaims many such drugs used in nanofibrous drug delivery. Also, multi-drug delivery has been reported to exhibit enhanced properties. The present review exhibits the unrealized potential of nanofibrous drug delivery in chemotherapy.

The chorioallantoic membrane as a bio-barrier model for the evaluation of nanoscale drug delivery systems for tumour therapy

In 2010, the European Parliament and the European Union adopted a directive on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes. The directive aims to protect animals in scientific research, with the final goal of complete replacement of procedures on live animals for scientific and educational purposes as soon as it is scientifically viable. Furthermore, the directive announces the implementation of the 3Rs principle: "When choosing methods, the principles of replacement, reduction and refinement should be implemented through a strict hierarchy of the requirement to use alternative methods." The visibility, accessibility, and the rapid growth of the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) offers a clear advantage for various manipulations and for the simulation of different Bio-Barriers according to the 3R principle. The extensive vascularisation on the CAM provides an excellent substrate for the cultivation of tumour cells or tumour xenografts which could be used for the therapeutic evaluation of nanoscale drug delivery systems. The tumour can be targeted either by topical application, intratumoural injection or i.v. injection. Different application sites and biological barriers can be examined within a single model.

A novel alginate/gelatin sponge combined with curcumin-loaded electrospun fibers for postoperative rapid hemostasis and prevention of tumor recurrence

Surgical resection of the tumor remains the preferred treatment for most solid tumors at an early stage, but surgical treatment often leads to massive bleeding and residual tumor cells. Therefore, a novel alginate/gelatin sponge combined with curcumin-loaded electrospun fibers (CFAGS) for rapid hemostasis and prevention of tumor recurrence was prepared by using an electrospinning and interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) strategy. The present results show that alginate/gelatin sponge display excellent hemostatic properties and possess more advantages than commercial gelatin hemostasis sponge. More importantly, CFAGS could control the release of curcumin, inducing curcumin to accumulate at the surgical site of the tumor, thereby inhibiting local tumor recurrence in the subcutaneous postoperative recurrence model. In addition, the sponge was safe to implant in the body and did not cause toxicity to normal tissues and organs. This approach represents a new strategy to implant a dual functional sponge at the postoperative site as an adjuvant to the surgical treatment of cancer.

Electrospun paclitaxel delivery system based on PGCL/PLGA in local therapy combined with brachytherapy

The local administration of different drugs in anticancer therapy continue to attract attention. Thus, the idea of local delivery of cytostatics from nonwoven-structured polyesters seems to be highly desirable. It could reduce systemic drug levels and provide high local concentration of the chemotherapeutics at the tumor site and contribute to enhance the efficiency of the anticancer therapy. Poly(glycolide-ɛ-caprolactone) (PGCL) and poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) synthesized with zirconium-based initiator have been used to prepare electrospun, drug-eluting patches since they possess very good fiber-forming ability. Well-known chemotherapeutic drug-paclitaxel has been loaded into fibrous structure as a model anticancer agent in order to obtain drug delivery systems for local administration. The drug dose in obtained nonwovens might be regulated by the thickness and total area of the implanted patches. Electrospinning of PGCL/PLGA blend allowed to obtain soft and flexible implantable materials. Flexibility has been important factor since it ensures convenient use when covering a tumor or filling a resection cavity. The effectiveness of designed nonwovens presented in the study has been tested in vivo on mouse model of breast cancer. The growth of the tumors was slowed down during in vivo study in comparison with drug-free nonwovens- The volume of the tumor was 40% lower. Drug-loaded electrospun systems implanted locally to the tumor site was further combined with brachytherapy which improved the effectiveness of the therapy in about 18%. Detailed analysis of the nonwovens before and during degradation process has been performed by means of Scanning Electron Microscopy, Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, Gel Permeation Chromatography, X-ray Diffraction. The molar mass changes of the nonwoven were quite rapid contrary to changes of comonomer unit content, thermal properties and morphology of the fiber.

Influence of Drug Incorporation on the Physico-Chemical Properties of Poly(l-Lactide) Implant Coating Matrices-A Systematic Study

Local drug delivery has become indispensable in biomedical engineering with stents being ideal carrier platforms. While local drug release is superior to systemic administration in many fields, the incorporation of drugs into polymers may influence the physico-chemical properties of said matrix. This is of particular relevance as minimally invasive implantation is frequently accompanied by mechanical stresses on the implant and coating. Thus, drug incorporation into polymers may result in a susceptibility to potentially life-threatening implant failure. We investigated spray-coated poly-l-lactide (PLLA)/drug blends using thermal measurements (DSC) and tensile tests to determine the influence of selected drugs, namely sirolimus, paclitaxel, dexamethasone, and cyclosporine A, on the physico-chemical properties of the polymer. For all drugs and PLLA/drug ratios, an increase in tensile strength was observed. As for sirolimus and dexamethasone, PLLA/drug mixed phase systems were identified by shifted drug melting peaks at 200 °C and 240 °C, respectively, whereas paclitaxel and dexamethasone led to cold crystallization. Cyclosporine A did not affect matrix thermal properties. Altogether, our data provide a contribution towards an understanding of the complex interaction between PLLA and different drugs. Our results hold implications regarding the necessity of target-oriented thermal treatment to ensure the shelf life and performance of stent coatings.

Burgeoning Polymer Nano Blends for Improved Controlled Drug Release: A Review

With continual rapid developments in the biomedical field and understanding of the important mechanisms and pharmacokinetics of biological molecules, controlled drug delivery systems (CDDSs) have been at the forefront over conventional drug delivery systems. Over the past several years, scientists have placed boundless energy and time into exploiting a wide variety of excipients, particularly diverse polymers, both natural and synthetic. More recently, the development of nano polymer blends has achieved noteworthy attention due to their amazing properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability and more importantly, their pivotal role in controlled and sustained drug release in vitro and in vivo. These compounds come with a number of effective benefits for improving problems of targeted or controlled drug and gene delivery systems; thus, they have been extensively used in medical and pharmaceutical applications. Additionally, they are quite attractive for wound dressings, textiles, tissue engineering, and biomedical prostheses. In this sense, some important and workable natural polymers (namely, chitosan (CS), starch and cellulose) and some applicable synthetic ones (such as poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly-glycolic acid (PGA)) have played an indispensable role over the last two decades for their therapeutic effects owing to their appealing and renewable biological properties. According to our data, this is the first review article highlighting CDDSs composed of diverse natural and synthetic nano biopolymers, blended for biological purposes, mostly over the past five years; other reviews have just briefly mentioned the use of such blended polymers. We, additionally, try to make comparisons between various nano blending systems in terms of improved sustained and controlled drug release behavior.

A Mini-Review: Needleless Electrospinning of Nanofibers for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications

Electrospinning (ES) is a convenient and versatile method for the fabrication of nanofibers and has been utilized in many fields including pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Conventional ES uses a needle spinneret for the generation of nanofibers and is associated with many limitations and drawbacks (i.e., needle clogging, limited production capacity, and low yield). Needleless electrospinning (NLES) has been proposed to overcome these problems. Within the last two decades (2004–2020), many research articles have been published reporting the use of NLES for the fabrication of polymeric nanofibers intended for drug delivery and biomedical tissue engineering applications. The objective of the present mini-review article is to elucidate the potential of NLES for designing such novel nanofibrous drug delivery systems and tissue engineering constructs. This paper also gives an overview of the key NLES approaches, including the most recently introduced NLES method: ultrasound-enhanced electrospinning (USES). The technologies underlying NLES systems and an evaluation of electrospun nanofibers are presented. Even though NLES is a promising approach for the industrial production of nanofibers, it is a multivariate process, and more research work is needed to elucidate its full potential and limitations.

Novel Paclitaxel-Loaded Nanoparticles Based on Human H Chain Ferritin for Tumor-Targeted Delivery

Paclitaxel (PTX), an excellent chemotherapeutic antitumor drug, is widely used to treat patients with various cancers. However, its clinical applications are greatly restricted by poor solubility and lack of targeting. Herein, we applied natural human H chain ferritin (HFtn) nanocages that can bind to tumor cells via interacting with the human transferritin receptor 1 (TfR1) leading to its endocytosis as the PTX carrier for the targeted delivery. PTX molecules were encapsulated into HFtn cavity using disassembly/reassembly method through adjusting pH. According to the requirements of drugs suitable for clinical trials, HFtn can be easily purified in high yields with no ligand modification or property modulation. We demonstrated that PTX molecules were successfully encapsulated in the protein nanocages. The HFtn-PTX nanoparticles exhibited similar morphology and structural characteristics to the hollow cage and showed significant cytotoxicity in vitro than the naked PTX. Flow cytometry, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and in vivo imaging of MDA-MB-231 tumor demonstrated the HFtn-PTX nanoparticles targeting ability to tumor cells. Cell apoptosis assay showed that HFtn-PTX had similar apoptotic characteristics on MDA-MB-231 cells as that of the free PTX. HFtn-PTX nanoparticles have higher in vivo therapeutic efficacy and lower systemic toxicity. The BALB/c mice model also confirmed the effectiveness of the nanoparticles. Specifically targeting to tumors and solving the solubility issue of water-insoluble drugs thus alleviating the side effects, HFtn can be an efficient hydrophobic drug delivery nanocarrier for further applications in cancer therapy.

The Use of Artificial Gel Forming Bolalipids as Novel Formulations in Antimicrobial and Antifungal Therapy

The alarming growth of multi-drug resistant bacteria has led to a quest for alternative antibacterial therapeutics. One strategy to circumvent the already existing resistance is the use of photodynamic therapy. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) involves the use of non-toxic photosensitizers in combination with light and in situ oxygen to generate toxic radical species within the microbial environment which circumvents the resistance building mechanism of the bacteria. Hydrogels are used ubiquitously in the biological and pharmaceutical fields, e.g., for wound dressing material or as drug delivery systems. Hydrogels formed by water-insoluble low-molecular weight gelators may potentially provide the much-needed benefits for these applications. Bolalipids are a superior example of such gelators. In the present work, two artificial bolalipids were used, namely PC-C32-PC and Me2PE-C32-Me2PE, which self-assemble in water into long and flexible nanofibers leading to a gelation of the surrounding solvent. The aim of the study was to create stable hydrogel formulations of both bolalipids and to investigate their applicability as a novel material for drug delivery systems. Furthermore, methylene blue-a well-known photosensitizer-was incorporated into the hydrogels in order to investigate the aPDT for the treatment of skin and mucosal infections using a custom designed LED device.