Synergistic hydroxyl radical formation, system XC- inhibition and heat shock protein crosslinking tango in ferrotherapy: A prove-of-concept study of "sword and shield" theory

A Multifunctional Nanocatalytic Metal-Organic Framework as a Ferroptosis Amplifier for Mild Hyperthermia Photothermal Therapy

Hyperthermia therapy is considered an effective anticancer strategy. However, high temperature can trigger an excessive inflammatory response, leading to tumor self-protection, immunosuppression, metastasis, and recurrence. To address this issue, we reported a multifunctional photothermal nanoplatform to achieve mild hyperthermia photothermal therapy (mild PTT) based on cisplatin (DDP) and a ferrocene metal-organic framework (MOF-Fc) nanocomposite, which can specifically enhance ferroptosis-triggered oxidative stress levels and synchronously amplify mild hyperthermia PTT-mediated anticancer responses. Both in vitro and in vivo antineoplastic results verify the superiority of mild PTT with DDP/MOF-Fc@HA. The combination of DDP and MOF-Fc exhibits Fenton catalytic activity and glutathione depletion capacity, magnifying mild hyperthermia effects via the radical oxygen species (ROS)-adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-HSP silencing pathway, with important implications for clinical hyperthermia therapy.

Biodegradable Cascade-Amplified Nanotheranostics for Photoacoustic-Guided Synergistic PTT/CDT/Starvation Antitumor in the NIR-II Window

The development of nanoassemblies, activated by the tumor microenvironment, capable of generating photothermal therapy (PTT) and amplifying the "ROS (·OH) storm," is essential for precise and effective synergistic tumor treatment. Herein, an innovative cascade-amplified nanotheranostics based on biodegradable Pd-BSA-GOx nanocomposite for NIR-II photoacoustic imaging (PAI) guides self-enhanced NIR-II PTT/chemodynamic therapy (CDT)/starvation synergistic therapy. The Pd-BSA-GOx demonstrates the ability to selectively convert overexpressed H2O2 into strongly toxic ·OH by a Pd/Pd2+-mediated Fenton-like reaction at a lower pH level. Simultaneously, the GOx generates H2O2 and gluconic acid, effectively disrupting nutrient supply and instigating tumor starvation therapy. More importantly, the heightened levels of H2O2 and increased acidity greatly enhance the Fenton-like reactivity, generating a significant "·OH storm," thereby achieving Pd2+-mediated cascade-amplifying CDT. The specific PTT facilitated by undegraded Pd accelerates the Fenton-like reaction, establishing a positive feedback process for self-enhancing synergetic PTT/CDT/starvation therapy via the NIR-II guided-PAI. Therefore, the multifunctional nanotheranostics presents a simple and versatile strategy for the precision diagnosis and treatment of tumors.

Management of ROS and Regulatory Cell Death in Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI) is fatal to patients, leading to cardiomyocyte death and myocardial remodeling. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress play important roles in MIRI. There is a complex crosstalk between ROS and regulatory cell deaths (RCD) in cardiomyocytes, such as apoptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy, and ferroptosis. ROS is a double-edged sword. A reasonable level of ROS maintains the normal physiological activity of myocardial cells. However, during myocardial ischemia-reperfusion, excessive ROS generation accelerates myocardial damage through a variety of biological pathways. ROS regulates cardiomyocyte RCD through various molecular mechanisms. Targeting the removal of excess ROS has been considered an effective way to reverse myocardial damage. Many studies have applied antioxidant drugs or new advanced materials to reduce ROS levels to alleviate MIRI. Although the road from laboratory to clinic has been difficult, many scholars still persevere. This article reviews the molecular mechanisms of ROS inhibition to regulate cardiomyocyte RCD, with a view to providing new insights into prevention and treatment strategies for MIRI.

A Multifunctional Nanoreactor-Induced Dual Inhibition of HSP70 Strategy for Enhancing Mild Photothermal/Chemodynamic Synergistic Tumor Therapy

Mild photothermal therapy (PTT) is a spatiotemporally controllable method that utilizes the photothermal effect at relatively low temperatures (40-45 °C) to especially eliminate tumor tissues with negligible side effects on the surrounding normal tissues. However, the overexpression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and limited effect of single treatment drastically impede the therapeutic efficacy. Herein, the constructed multifunctional core-shell structured Ag-Cu@SiO2-PDA/GOx nanoreactors (APG NRs) that provide a dual inhibition of HSP70 strategy for the second near-infrared photoacoustic (NIR-II PA) imaging-guided combined mild PTT/chemodynamic therapy (CDT). The Ag-Cu cores can convert endogenous H2O2 to hydroxyl radical (•OH), which can induce lipid peroxidation (LPO) and further degrade HSP70. The polydopamine (PDA)/glucose oxidase (GOx) shells are utilized as the NIR-II photothermal agent to generate low temperature, and the GOx can reduce the energy supplies and inhibit energy-dependent HSP70 expression. Furthermore, both the generation of •OH and GOx-mediated energy shortage can reduce HSP70 expression to sensitize mild PTT under 1064 nm laser, and in turn, GOx and laser self-amplify the catalytic reactions of APG NRs for more production of •OH. The multifunctional nanoreactors will provide more potential possibilities for the clinical employment of mild PTT and the advancement of tumor combination therapies.

Iron-Based Nanovehicle Delivering Fin56 for Hyperthermia-Boosted Ferroptosis Therapy Against Osteosarcoma

Background

Although systemic chemotherapy is a standard approach for osteosarcoma (OS) treatment, its efficacy is limited by the inherent or acquired resistance to apoptosis of tumor cells. Ferroptosis is considered as an effective strategy capable of stimulating alternative pathways of cancer cell demise. The purpose of this study is to develop a novel strategy boosting ferroptotic cascade for synergistic cancer therapy.

Methods and Results

A novel nanovehicle composed of arginine-glycine-aspartate (RGD) modified mesoporous silica-coated iron oxide loading Fin56 was rationally prepared (FSR-Fin56). With the RGD-mediated targeting affinity, FSR-Fin56 could achieve selective accumulation and accurate delivery of cargos into cancer cells. Upon exposure to NIR light, the nanovehicle could generate localized hyperthermia and disintegrate to liberate the therapeutic payload. The released Fin56 triggered the degradation of GPX4, while Fe3+ depleted the intracellular GSH pool, producing Fe2+ as a Fenton agent. The local rise in temperature, in conjunction with Fe2+-mediated Fenton reaction, led to a rapid and significant accumulation of ROS, culminating in LPOs and ferroptotic death. The outstanding therapeutic efficacy and safety of the nanovehicle were validated both in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusion

The Fin56-loaded FSR nanovehicle could effectively disturb the redox balance in cancer cells. Coupled with NIR laser irradiation, the cooperative CDT and PTT achieved a boosted ferroptosis-inducing therapy. Taken together, this study offers a compelling strategy for cancer treatment, particularly for ferroptosis-sensitive tumors like osteosarcoma.

Cell Death Pathway Regulation by Functional Nanomedicines for Robust Antitumor Immunity

Cancer immunotherapy has become a mainstream cancer treatment over traditional therapeutic modes. Cancer cells can undergo programmed cell death including ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, apoptosis and cuproptosis which are find to have intrinsic relationships with host antitumor immune response. However, direct use of cell death inducers or regulators may bring about severe side effects that can also be rapidly excreted and degraded with low therapeutic efficacy. Nanomaterials are able to carry them for long circulation time, high tumor accumulation and controlled release to achieve satisfactory therapeutic effect. Nowadays, a large number of studies have focused on nanomedicines-based strategies through modulating cell death modalities to potentiate antitumor immunity. Herein, immune cell types and their function are first summarized, and state-of-the-art research progresses in nanomedicines mediated cell death pathways (e.g., ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, apoptosis and cuproptosis) with immune response provocation are highlighted. Subsequently, the conclusion and outlook of potential research focus are discussed.

Chrysophanol improves memory impairment and cell injury by reducing the level of ferroptosis in Aβ25-35 treated rat and PC12 cells

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common age-related chronic and neurodegenerative disease that has become a global health problem. AD pathogenesis is complex, and the clinical efficacy of commonly used anti-AD drugs is suboptimal. Recent research has revealed a close association between AD-induced damage and the activation of ferroptosis signaling pathways. Chrysophanol (CHR) the principal medicinal component of Rhubarb, has been reported to have anti-AD effects and can reduce ROS levels in AD-damaged models. AD has been linked to the activation of ferroptosis signaling pathways, which has an important feature of higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Therefore, the present study explored whether CHR had an anti-AD effect by regulating the ferroptosis levels in AD injury models. Morris water maze, novel object recognition test, Y-maze test, Hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining, western blotting, ROS measurement, GPx activity measurement, LPO measurement, transmission electron microscopy, live/dead cell staining were used to investigate the changes in spatial memory level and ferroptosis level in AD model, and the intervention effect of CHR. CHR improved the spatial memory level of AD rat models, reduced the level of hippocampal neuron damage, and improved the survival rate of PC12 cells damaged by β-amyloid (Aβ). Meanwhile, CHR increased glutathione peroxidase-4 (GPX4) protein expression, GPx activity, and GSH, decreased ROS and LPO levels in AD rat models and Aβ-damaged PC12 cells, and improved mitochondrial pathological damage. Our findings suggest that CHR may play a protective role in AD injury by lowering ferroptosis levels, which may provide a potential pathway for developing drugs for AD. However, the mechanism of CHR's role requires further investigation.

Mild-Photothermal Effect Induced High Efficiency Ferroptosis-Boosted-Cuproptosis Based on Cu2 O@Mn3 Cu3 O8 Nanozyme

A core-shell-structured Cu2 O@Mn3 Cu3 O8 (CMCO) nanozyme is constructed to serve as a tumor microenvironment (TME)-activated copper ionophore to achieve safe and efficient cuproptosis. The Mn3 Cu3 O8 shell not only prevents exposure of normal tissues to the Cu2 O core to reduce systemic toxicity but also exhibits enhanced enzyme-mimicking activity owing to the better band continuity near the Fermi surface. The glutathione oxidase (GSHOx)-like activity of CMCO depletes glutathione (GSH), which diminishes the ability to chelate Cu ions, thereby exerting Cu toxicity and inducing cuproptosis in cancer cells. The catalase (CAT)-like activity catalyzes the overexpressed H2 O2 in the TME, thereby generating O2 in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle to enhance cuproptosis. More importantly, the Fenton-like reaction based on the release of Mn ions and the inactivation of glutathione peroxidase 4 induced by the elimination of GSH results in ferroptosis, accompanied by the accumulation of lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species that can cleave stress-induced heat shock proteins to compromise their protective capacity of cancer cells and further sensitize cuproptosis. CMCO nanozymes are partially sulfurized by hydrogen sulfide in the colorectal TME, exhibiting excellent photothermal properties and enzyme-mimicking activity. The mild photothermal effect enhances the enzyme-mimicking activity of the CMCO nanozymes, thus inducing high-efficiency ferroptosis-boosted-cuproptosis.

A Dual Heat Shock Protein Down-Regulation Strategy Using PDA/Cu/ICG/R Controlled by NIR "Switch" Enhances Mild-Photothermal Therapy Effect

The purpose of this study is to down-regulate heat shock proteins and improve the mild photothermal therapy (mild-PTT) effect of polydopamine (PDA) by preparing the nanosystem of Cu2+ and indocyanine green (ICG)-loaded PDA nanospheres with surface modification of integrin-targeted cyclic peptide (cRGD) (PDA/Cu/ICG/R), which can limit ATP synthesis through the double mitochondrial destruction pathway. In vitro and in vivo experiments using PDA/Cu/ICG/R irradiated with an NIR laser demonstrate that when NIR is "OFF," Cu2+ can undergo Fenton-like reaction in tumor cells, producing a large amount of hydroxyl radicals (·OH), which leads to oxidative stress in cells. This oxidative stress can cause mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation dysfunction, resulting in limited ATP synthesis. When NIR is "ON," mild-PTT can accelerate Cu2+ to produce ·OH. Simultaneously, NIR can activate ICG to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) storm, amplify intracellular oxidative stress, and continuously damage mitochondria. The biodegradability of PDA greatly reduces the risk of toxicity caused by long-term retention of PDA/Cu/ICG/R in organisms. Finally, the improvement of the mild-PTT effect of PDA is successfully achieved through the double mitochondrial destruction pathway of Cu2+ and ICG controlled by NIR "switch."

Ablation of Gap Junction Protein Improves the Efficiency of Nanozyme-Mediated Catalytic/Starvation/Mild-Temperature Photothermal Therapy

Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated tumor catalytic therapy is typically hindered by gap junction proteins that form cell-to-cell channels to remove cytotoxic ROS, thereby protecting tumor cells from oxidative damage. In this work, a multifunctional nanozyme, FePGOGA, is designed and prepared by Fe(III)-mediated oxidative polymerization (FeP), followed by glucose oxidase (GOx) and GAP19 peptides co-loading through electrostatic and π-π interactions. The FePGOGA nanozyme exhibits excellent cascade peroxidase- and glutathione-oxidase-like activities that efficiently catalyze hydrogen peroxide conversion to hydroxyl radicals and convert reduced glutathione to oxidized glutathione disulfide. The loaded GOx starves the tumors and aggravates tumor oxidative stress through glucose decomposition, while GAP19 peptides block the hemichannels by inducing degradation of Cx43, thus increasing the accumulation of intracellular ROS, and decreasing the transport of intracellular glucose. Furthermore, the ROS reacts with primary amines of heat shock proteins to destroy their structure and function, enabling tumor photothermal therapy at the widely sought-after mild temperature (mildPTT, ≤45 °C). In vivo experiments demonstrate the significant antitumor effectof FePGOGA on cal27 xenograft tumors under near-infrared light irradiation. This study demonstrates the successful ablation of gap junction proteins to overcome resistance to ROS-mediated therapy, providing a regulator to suppress tumor self-preservation during tumor starvation, catalytic therapy, and mildPTT.

A Mini Review of S-Nitrosoglutathione Loaded Nano/Micro-Formulation Strategies

As a potential therapeutic agent, the clinical application of S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) is limited because of its instability. Therefore, different formulations have been developed to protect GSNO from degradation, delivery and the release of GSNO at a physiological concentration in the active position. Due to the high water-solubility and small molecular-size of GSNO, the biggest challenges in the encapsulation step are low encapsulation efficiency and burst release. This review summarizes the different nano/micro-formulation strategies of a GSNO related delivery system to provide references for subsequent researchers interested in GSNO encapsulation.

Photothermal Nanozyme-Based Microneedle Patch against Refractory Bacterial Biofilm Infection via Iron-Actuated Janus Ion Therapy

Owing to high antibiotic resistance and thermotolerance, bacterial biofilm infections (BBIs) are refractory to elimination. Iron is essential for bacterial growth and metabolism, and bacteria can thus accumulate iron from surrounding cells to maintain biofilm formation and survival. Consequently, iron deficiency in the biofilm microenvironment (BME) leads to the functional failure of innate immune cells. Herein, a novel antibiofilm strategy of iron-actuated Janus ion therapy (IJIT) is proposed to regulate iron metabolism in both bacterial biofilm and immune cells. A BME-responsive photothermal microneedle patch (FGO@MN) is synthesized by the growth of Fe₃ O₄  nanoparticles on graphene oxide nanosheets and then encapsulated in methacrylated hyaluronic acid needle tips. The catalytic product of ·OH by FGO@MN in BME disrupts the bacterial heat-shock proteins, coercing biofilm thermal sensitization. As synergistic mild photothermal treatment triggers iron uptake, the intracellular iron overload further induces ferroptosis-like death. Moreover, iron-nourished neutrophils around BME can be rejuvenated for reactivating the suppressed antibiofilm function. Thus, more than 95% BBIs elimination can be achieved by combining heat stress-triggered iron interference with iron-nutrient immune reactivation. Furthermore, in vivo experiments validate the scavenging of refractory BBI after 15 days, suggesting the promising perspective of IJIT in future clinical application.

NIR-II Excitation Phototheranostic Platform for Synergistic Photothermal Therapy/Chemotherapy/Chemodynamic Therapy of Breast Cancer Bone Metastases

To improve bone metastases treatment efficacy, current strategies are focused on the integration of chemotherapy with phototheranostic. However, the success of phototheranostic approaches is hampered by the limited tissue penetration depth of near-infrared-I (NIR-I) light (700-900 nm). In this study, a NIR-II (1000-1700 nm) excitation phototheranostic (BTZ/Fe²⁺ @BTF/ALD) is presented for NIR-II fluorescence imaging and NIR-II photoacoustic imaging-guided NIR-II photothermal therapy (PTT), chemotherapy, and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) of breast cancer bone metastases. This phototheranostic is developed by integrating a dopamine-modified NIR-II absorbing donor-acceptor-donor small molecule (BBT-FT-DA), the boronate anticancer drug bortezomib (BTZ), and Fe²⁺ ions, as CDT catalysts, into an amphiphilic PEGylated phospholipid modified with the bone-targeting ligand alendronate. In acidic and hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ) over expression tumor microenvironment, the boronate-catechol linkage is cleaved and BTZ and Fe²⁺ ions are released to initiate the Fenton reaction, that is, chemotherapy and CDT, respectively, are initialized. It is confirmed using the murine 4T1 bone metastasis model that BTZ/Fe²⁺ @BTF/ALD significantly suppresses the progression of tumor cells in the bone tissue via a synergistic NIR-II PTT/chemotherapy/CDT effect. Overall, this work provides fresh insights to guide the development of NIR-II phototheranostics for breast cancer bone metastases.